Middle Kwang Grammar
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This is a sketch grammar of
Middle Kwang, the primary language of what is now Qonklaks around 800 CE. It is the ancestor of 
Standard Kwang and 
Unknown [WQW].Informal, neutral
This set of pronouns is used when the speaker and addressee are of similar status and are well acquainted.
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1First person (person) speaker, signer, etc; I | thàw | sa | ngang | thã ù 'your friend', 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) in possessive | thàw aq | u | ngwang | thàw + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1PEFirst person plural exclusive (person) we (exclusive) in possessive |
| 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) | ma aq | u ma | ngwang ma | ma 1IFirst person inanimate (person) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1PEFirst person plural exclusive (person) we (exclusive) + 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) in possessive | ||||
| 2Second person (person) addressee (you) | di | ù | di | Proto-Kwang 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | di aq | ù aq | di aq | 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost) |
Informal, respectful
This register is used between people of different status who are close, for example children with their parents.
The person lower in status uses the following set of pronouns:
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1First person (person) speaker, signer, etc; I | mỳj | mỳj | mỳj | jàng mỹ ì 'your doing' | mỳj aq | mỳj aq | mỳj aq | mỳj + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1EFirst person exclusive (person) I/we but not you in possessive |
| 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) | ma aq | u ma | ngwang ma | ma 1IFirst person inanimate (person) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1PEFirst person plural exclusive (person) we (exclusive) + 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) in possessive | ||||
| 2Second person (person) addressee (you) | i | ì | i | Proto-Kwang 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | i aq | ì aq | i aq | 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost) |
The person higher in status uses the following set of pronouns:
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1First person (person) speaker, signer, etc; I | ng | sa | ngang | Proto-Kwang 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ngaq | u | ngwang | 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1PEFirst person plural exclusive (person) we (exclusive) in possessive |
| 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) | ma aq | u ma | ngwang ma | ma 1IFirst person inanimate (person) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1PEFirst person plural exclusive (person) we (exclusive) + 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) in possessive | ||||
| 2Second person (person) addressee (you) | di | ù | di | Proto-Kwang 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | di aq | ù aq | di aq | 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost) |
Third persons are referred to by classifiers or titles.
Formal
This register is used between people who are not well acquainted, at court, and at school.
The first person exclusive is expressed with the following set of pronouns:
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | SGSingular (number) one countable entity.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | PLPlural (number) more than one/few.POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.ALIENUnknown code | etymology | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1First person (person) speaker, signer, etc; I | mỳj | mỳj | mỳj | jàng mỹ ì 'your doing' | mỳj aq | mỳj aq | mỳj aq | mỳj + aq (G2Gender 2 (gender/class).POSSPossessive (case) owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost), 1EFirst person exclusive (person) I/we but not you in possessive |
Note that the inclusive pronouns are not used, being replaced by explicit expressions like zaj za zy mỳj 'teacher and I'. Second and third persons are referred to by titles (if human) or classifiers (if nonhuman).
Classifiers are used to join demonstrative and quantifiers to noun phrases, and additionally to allow demonstratives and quantifiers to stand alone as their own noun phrases (in this latter construction, the classifier follows the demonstrative and quantifier).
| form | etymology | includes |
|---|---|---|
| ngy | 'person' | humans (singular) |
| aq | 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.INALInalienable (possesson) thing that can't be gained or lost | humans (plural) |
| ñhung | 'woman' | women (singular or plural), interchangeable with ngy/aq for women |
| ko | 'part' | body parts, parts of whole, cloth, paper, leaves |
| ni | G3Gender 3 (gender/class) | large land vertebrates, dogs, cats (singular) |
| ri | G6Gender 6 (gender/class) | land vertebrates of all sizes (plural) |
| he | G5Gender 5 (gender/class) | small land vertebrates (singular) |
| ri | 'tree' | trees, wood |
| ku | 'fruit' | fruits, nuts, melons |
| tũ | 'rhizome' | roots, rhizomes, tubers, portions of grain, dumplings |
| ngung | 'flower' | flowers, candles, crowns |
| ty | 'stone' | jagged stones, mollusks, insects, grains, seeds, stars |
| mjang | 'head' | round things (not including heads), corpses, lotus seed pods |
| maq | 'stick' | long things, roads, belts, borders, bridges |
| tsjang | 'metal' | tools, nonprecious metals and metal containers |
| yng | G7Gender 7 (gender/class) | floppy things, marine animals, bags |
| raq | 'to wind' | short cylindrical things, wheels, wheeled vehicles, scrolls, months, years, lives |
| phang | 'place' | areas, countries |
| ñhã | 'house' | ceramics, wooden containers, baskets, shells, husks, boats, buildings, official positions, families |
| jàng | NMZNominaliser makes other word a noun | instances of activities, dynasties |
| nha | G8Gender 8 (gender/class) | liquids, bodies of water, masses, swarms, fire |
| nha | 'treasure' | valuables such as precious metals, gemstones, and artifacts |
| phaq | 'group' | groups, sets, outfits, armies, songs, poems |
| tu | G9Gender 9 (gender/class) | generic |
If the possessor is a personal possessive pronouns, no other explicit linking particle is needed. Otherwise:
If the possessee is inanimate, a possessor is preceded by tjà if the possessor does not have a classifier in it; otherwise it begins with Ø if the possessor begins in CL, or CL if the possessor has CL but does not begin with it.
If the possessee is a human, the possessor takes ti.
If the possessee is an animal, the possessor takes ñùng ‘animal’ if the possessor is human, else tjà.
The noun phrase follows the order:
(demonstrative) (quantifier) (monosyllabic adjective) (classifier) noun (ti adjective) (possessive phrase) (ti relative.clause)
The classifier is obligatory if anything precedes the head in the noun phrase; it may also be used alone to express ‘one’ or a specific indefinite.
Clauses follow the orders:
S P V O X T or
O P S V X T or
X P S V O T
...where P is a post-topic particle, X is an oblique argument, and T is clause-final particles
Post-topic particles are obligatory in main clauses, but are optional in other clauses.
| form | meaning | etymology |
|---|---|---|
| nji 呼 | TOPTopic (syntactic) the topic (key reference point) of a sentence.IPFVImperfective (aspect) 'interrupted or incomplete'.REALRealis mood (mood) actual, real events | G7Gender 7 (gender/class) + PROGProgressive (aspect) be verb-ing.STAVStative aspect (aspect) ongoing but not changing.REALRealis mood (mood) actual, real events |
| njì 閣 | TOPTopic (syntactic) the topic (key reference point) of a sentence.IPFVImperfective (aspect) 'interrupted or incomplete'.IRRIrrealis mood.NFUTNon-future (tense) past and present (also used for imperatives and hortatives) | G7Gender 7 (gender/class) + PROGProgressive (aspect) be verb-ing.STAVStative aspect (aspect) ongoing but not changing.IRRIrrealis mood |
| nyj 奈 | TOPTopic (syntactic) the topic (key reference point) of a sentence.PFVPerfective (aspect) completed action | G7Gender 7 (gender/class) + PSTPast (tense) action occurred before moment of speech |
| nỳj 惟 | TOPTopic (syntactic) the topic (key reference point) of a sentence.FUTFuture (tense) action occurring after the moment of speech | G7Gender 7 (gender/class) + FUTFuture (tense) action occurring after the moment of speech |
| tỹ | new topic | 'now' |
| wỳ | additive focus | 'also' |
| zy | plural emphasis | 'and' |
| žu | restrictive focus | 'only' |
| lì | nominal copula / IPFVImperfective (aspect) 'interrupted or incomplete'.FOCFocus (syntactic) shows new or contrastive information | 'be' |
| ỳj | combining IRRIrrealis mood (after a non-topic particle) | FUTFuture (tense) action occurring after the moment of speech |
These particles are not obligatory in any clause.
| form | meaning | etymology |
|---|---|---|
| paq | NEGNegative (polarity) not | (same) |
| làw | PFVPerfective (aspect) completed action | 'finish' |
| qãw | with present relevance | 'already' |
| Ø | IMPImperative (mood) command (impolite) | |
| mhỹ | IMPImperative (mood) command (neutral) | (same) |
| sãw | HORTHortative (mood) 'let's...' (impolite) | 'come out' |
| ma | HORTHortative (mood) 'let's...' (neutral) | 1PIFirst person plural inclusive (person) we (inclusive) |
| wàw | SUBJUnknown code (in irrealis) / HABHabitual (aspect) done often or out of habit (in realis) | SUBJUnknown code |
| ang tsaj | can | (same) |
| bjang tsaj | cannot | (same) |
| bjang laq | FUTFuture (tense) action occurring after the moment of speech.NEGNegative (polarity) not |
A few verbs take the special particle bjang, sometimes with suppletion.
bjang ti ‘not be’ (suppletive)
bjang na nga 'not know' (suppletive)
bjang na ‘not have’
Otherwise it is handled with the paq final particle; paq may also be inserted after a non-final noun phrase for emphatic negation.
The complementizer is pyng, from 'to say', which precedes the complement clause.
Relative clauses all follow gapping, and only subject or object extraction is allowed.
Example:
è
this ñhã
CLClassifier
quantifies and/or replaces nouns lì
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate ñhã
house ti
RELRelative taq
older.sibling sa
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.POSSPossessive (case)
owns, has.INALInalienable (possesson)
thing that can't be gained or lost nyj
TOPTopic (syntactic)
the topic (key reference point) of a sentence.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action qeng
buy làw
PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
'This is the house which my older sibling bought. (informal, equal status)'
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on 24/12/21 08:47+4[Deactivated User]add logograms
on 20/01/19 01:28+5[Deactivated User]clarification of ni classifier
