nouns and adjectives in Thuldian
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short summary of the case and gender system of thuldian nouns
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 21 May 2024, 21:25.
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3. verbs in Thuldian
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Thuldian has 7 nominal cases, 2 genders and 3 grammatical numbers. Gender is almost always very transparent depending on the endings of a noun. Nouns belonging to 9 declensions, 3 of which are almost always masculine, 3 almost always feminine and 2 which contain both genders. All nouns in Thuldian are declinable and almost all are regularly conjugated into one of 8 declension classes.
Thuldian nouns can be either single, dual or plural, although across most of the speaker area the dual is rarely used. For example, a sentence like ба́ра́ пекѧн двай вíру - bārā peķan dvai vīru – "two men are fighting in a bar" would seem very stilted and formal to most. Although in some villages in the north, the dual is still used in everyday speech.
However, for body parts, and things that normally come in pairs, it is much more common to hear the dual forms of the noun in everyday speech. For example: каньжі, лаџі, на́ші, ѧ́му, осану, ыкэну – two hands, legs, nostrils, arms, ears, eyes. For most speakers, saying кайк ыкэнаму – kaik yķenamu – “look with your eyes”, would sound more natural than saying кайк ыкэнам – kaik yķenam – “look with your eyes”, even though both forms are grammtically correct. However, the dual is used far more freely in literature and in formal speech.
Also to note is that not all words have a singular and plural form. There are a number of plurale tantum nouns that only have plural forms. There are internal organs: гарнас - intestines, люрас - liver, ыді - tissue; elements: ѯівеніс - sky, луктѵс - air, міѯас - cloud; among other semantic fields whose words are often chiefly or exclusively pluralised.
Nominative case
The nominative case represents the subject of a sentence, or the noun which carried out the action, as opposed to the object or any other verb arguments. It is the lemma, or reference form used to cite the word, and thus the form found in a dictionary. The nominative can only ever end in -с, -р, or a vowel. Some examples of the nominative and its role in the sentence include:
- вíрс сенѡ дранкт алу – vīrs senuo drankt alu – the old man drank beer
- ѣм авіс блака ѯуне – jėm avis blaka xunē – I am the black sheep of the family
- Рíга ір Латвеѧс галваспільса́та – Rīga ir Latvejas galvaspiļsāta – Rīga is the capital of Latvia
Vocative case
The vocative is used in direct address and imperatives:
- вíр!– vīr!– man!
- ватен!– vaten! – water!
- блѡжен аві! – bluožen avi! – stupid sheep!
Accusative case
The accusative case represents the object of a sentence, or the noun which an action was carried out upon. It is also used with a number of prepositions, normally indicating motion as opposed to location, which is indicated with the locative. For example: “ан трѵѧ́” means ‘on the tree’, whereas “ан трѵю” means ‘onto the tree’. Some examples of the accusative include:
- дрункам крíвѡ дегвíну – drunkam krīvuo degvīnu – we drank Russian vodka
- ну́тан мулкюс цѣдí чíна – nūtan muļķus cėdī čīna – they used bricks instead of stone
- шапсім наман клу́дан ри сіре – šapsim naman klūdan ŗi sire – we will make a celebrated name for ourselves
Genitive case
The genitive case represents a relation between two nouns, normally some sort of possession. The equivalent in English is either 'of' or -'s. It can also be used with a number of prepositions. It can also be used partitively, as in пілкс піѯѡ – fullof fishSome examples of the genitive include:
- пранс ѕеніс па́рѳунс ста́т э́ – prans dzenis pārțuns stāt jē – the foreign woman’s friend is over there
- дрункам крíвѡ дегвíну – drunkam krīvuo degvīnu – we drank Russian vodka
- Рíга ір галваспільса́та Латвеѧс – Rīga ir galvaspiļsāta Latvejas – Rīga is the capital of Latvia
Dative case
The dative case has a number of roles, covering both the indirect object, and for many prepositions, especially in the plural. It can also be used for the purpose, benefit, or manner of an action, or to denote possession. It is also used in possession, especially inalienable or temporary possession. Some examples of the Dative include:
- мíнам прандíбастені ста́т ѣва алкохолс – mīnam prandī basteni stāt jėva alkohols – my best friend has all the alcohol (literally “to my best friend is all the alcohol)
- ір ри падрí мíнам – ir ŗi padrī mīnam – It's for my father
- габу паден мíнан бе́рнам вѣте́гэнам – gabu paden mīnan bērnam vėtēģenam – I gave my food to the local children
Instrumental case
The instrumental case is used to indicate the means with which the subject achieves an action, as well as the subject of a passive verb. It can be used with the preposition me 'with', but this is optional and is often omitted, especially when the instrumental form is distinct from other cases. It's also used in passive constructions to signify the doer of the passive verb. Some examples of the instrumental include:
- вíрс ба́рды лагэне двала ѳаѧ́ разна́– vīrs bārdy laģene dvala ţajā raznā – the man with the long beard lives in that house
- сінт апевелтíді ражуне – sint apeveltídi ražune – they’re endowed with reason
- пільса́та васт етíріда ѳíнан праньже – piļsāta vast etīrida ţīnan praņže – the city was built by your friend
Locative case
The locative case is used to indicate the location of a noun. Like the instrumental, it may be used with prepositions or may occur by itself. It is not native to Thuldian but was developed under the influence of Latvian. Some examples of the locative include:
- вíрс ба́рды лагэне двала ѳаѧ́ разна́– vīrs bārdy laģene dvala ţajā raznā – the man with the long beard lives in that house
- да́лю ужпундан ланда́ Шінеѧ́ра – dāļu užpundan landā Šinejāra – they discovered a valley in the land of Shinar
- О паде уѱінѧ́ – o pade upsiņā – our father in heaven
Nouns can be divided into a number of different “stems” that dictate how they are declined. The way to decide in what way a noun is declines depends purely on the last letter of the noun and its gender.
1st declension nouns
Nouns in the first declension are always masculine, and end in -s. . Foreign nouns ending in a consonant are almost always borrowed into this class. However, there are a subclass of nouns, often relating to young people or animals, that have an -р- added before other case endings other than the nominative.
вíрс ‘man’ (M) | кѵдс ‘baby’ (M) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | вíрс | вíру | вíрі | кѵдс | кѵдру | кѵдрі |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | вíр | |||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | вíру | вíрус | кѵдру | кѵдрус | ||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | вíра | вíріс | вíрѡ | кѵдра | кѵдріс | кѵдрѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | вíре | вíраму | вíрам | кѵдре | кѵдраму | кѵдрам |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | вíры | вíрем | кѵдры | кѵдрем | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | вíра́ | вíрíс | вíрос | кѵдра́ | кѵдрíс | кѵдрос |
2nd declension nouns
The i-stems are a much larger class than they were in Proto-Germanic, as the Proto-Germanic nouns ending in -(i)jaz have collapsed into this class, as well as a number of borrowings from Latvian. Nouns can be both masculine and feminine in this class, but masculine nouns make up the vast majority, with feminine nouns being almost all abstract nouns, largely ending in -діс or -ѳіс.
ыбіс ‘fairy’ (M) | ѯодіс ‘wrongdoing’ (F) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ыбіс | ыбю | ыби | ѯодіс | ѯожі | ѯожі |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | ыбі | ѯоді | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ыбюс | |||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | ыбѧ | ыбис | ыбѫ | ѯожас | ѯожіс | ѯожѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | ыбэ | ыбѧму | ыбѧм | ѯожай | ѯожа́му | ѯожа́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | ыбю | ыбэм | ѯожу | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | ыбí | ыби́с | ыбѫс | ѯодí | ѯожíс | ѯодíс |
As shown above, there are certain consonantal alterations in some declensions, that occur before the j- vowels. ц- becomes ч-, д- and з- become ж-, ѕ- becomes џ-, с- and т- become ш-, and ст- becomes щ-. Note that in the genitive plural, -ѫ is used after palatalised consonants and -ѡ is used elsewhere.
3rd declension nouns
Similarly to i-stem nouns, u-stem nouns are slightly larger than in Proto-Germanic, as the Proto-Germanic nouns ending in -(u)waz, which were a subclass of a-stem nouns, have largely collapsed into this class, as well as borrowings from Latvian. Nouns in this class are almost entirely masculine.
сунус ‘son’ (M) | |||
---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | сунус | суну | сунѵс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | суну | ||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | сунус | ||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | сунос | сунѡс | сунѫ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | суне | сунуму | сунум |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | сунѵ | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | суну́ | суну́с | сунос |
4th declension nouns
The 4th declension nouns are a relatively large class of entirely masculine nouns, which end in -ѡ in the nominative and have an -н in every single other case.
ватѡ ‘water’ (M) | |||
---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ватѡ | ватену | ватеніс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | ватен | ||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ватенус | ||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | ватенс | ватеніс | ватенѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | ватені | ватенаму | ватенам |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | ватене | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | ватене́ | ватенíс | ватенос |
5th and 6th declension nouns
The 5th and 6th declension nouns make up the vast majority of feminine nouns in the language, both native and foreign. 5th declension nouns mostly end in -a, with some nouns ending in -у in the nominative singular, whereas 6th declension nouns always end in -е or -ѣ.
лѧра ‘glass’ (F) | балу ‘evil’ (F) | рібе ‘rib’ (F) | амѣ ‘ability’ (F) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | лѧра | лѧрі | лѧрас | балу | балу | балус | рібе | ріби | рібес | амѣ | ами | амѣс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | аме | |||||||||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | лѧру | рібі | ||||||||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | лѧрас | лѧріс | лѧрѡ | балус | балѡс | балѡ | рібес | рібіс | рібѫ | амѣс | аміс | амѫ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | лѧрай | лѧра́му | лѧра́м | балуй | балу́му | балу́м | рібей | рібе́му | рібе́м | амей | аме́му | аме́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | лѧры | балы | рібы | амы | ||||||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | лѧра́ | лѧрíс | лѧра́с | балу́ | балу́с | балу́с | рібе́ | ріби́с | рібе́с | аме́ | ами́с | аме́с |
7th declension nouns
The 7th declension nouns are the feminine counterpart of the 4th declension nouns, and function very similarly. They can either end in -е́ or -у́ in the nominative singular. The subclass of nouns ending in -е́ are usually nominalised adjectives.
цыку́ ‘cheek’ (F) | боде́ ‘load’ (F) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | цыку́ | цыкуні | цыкуніс | боде́ | бодені | боденіс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | цыкун | боден | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | цыкунус | боденус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | цыкунс | цыкуніс | цыкуну | боденс | боденіс | бодену |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | цыкуні | цыкуму | цыкумас | бодені | бодему | бодемас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | цыкуне | цыкуміс | бодене | бодеміс | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | цыкуне́ | цыкумíс | цыкума́с | бодене́ | бодемíс | бодема́с |
8th declension nouns
The 8th nouns are a relatively small class of nouns, of both genders, although there are more feminine than masculine nouns. However, for historical reasons, the nominatives of this case, if they end in -тс, -дс, -кс or-пс, they are written as -ц, -ѕ, -ѯ and -ѱ. Also note, as well as к turning to ц before j-vowels, it turnes to кь before е or і in the declension.
арнс ‘eagle’ (M) | па́ц ‘foot’ (F) | ба́ѯ ‘book’ (F) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | арнс | арню | арніс | па́ц | па́ші | па́тіс | ба́ѯ | ба́ці | ба́кис |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | арні | арнюс | па́ті | па́шус | ба́ки | ба́цус | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | арніс | арнис | арнѫ | па́тіс | па́шіс | па́шѡ | ба́кис | ба́ціс | ба́цѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | арнí | арнѧму | арнíм | па́тí | па́тíму | па́тíм | ба́ки́ | ба́ки́му | ба́ки́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | арнэ | па́ше | ба́це | ||||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | арнэ́ | арни́с | арнíс | па́ше́ | па́шíс | па́тíс | ба́це́ | ба́цíс | ба́ки́с |
However, a small group of 8th declension nouns, mostly ending in -нс or -Vс undergo additional changes from their nominative form to their oblique forms. Furthermore, there is the case of алу – beer, and мылі – honey, which are quite irregular.
пранс ‘friend’ (M) | ме́нас ‘month’ (F) | алу ‘beer’ (F) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | пранс | пранду | прандіс | ме́нас | ме́наѳі | ме́наѳіс | алу | алуѳі | алуѳис |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | пранді | прандус | ме́наѳі | ме́наѳус | алуѳус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | прандіс | прандіс | прандѡ | ме́наѳіс | ме́наѳіс | ме́наѳѫ | алуѳіс | алуѳіс | алуѳѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | прандí | прандаму | прандíм | ме́наѳí | ме́наѳíму | ме́наѳíм | алуѳí | алуѳíму | алуѳíм |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | пранде | ме́наѳе | алуѳе | ||||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | пранде́ | прандíс | прандíс | ме́наѳе́ | ме́наѳíс | ме́наѳíс | алуѳе́ | алуѳíс | алуѳíс |
9th declension nouns
9th declension nouns are virtually all masculine agent nouns, as agent nouns are formed by adding -те́ at the end of the verb. Additionally, there are the kinship terms, паде́ (father), мате́ (mother), праѳе́ (brother), свесте́ (sister) and дукте́ (daughter).
возте́ ‘ruler’ (M) | паде́ ‘father’ (M) | свесте́ ‘sister’ (F) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | возте́ | возтру | возтріс | паде́ | падру | падріс | свесте́ | свестрі | свестріс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | возте | паде | свесте | ||||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | возтру | возтрус | падру | падрус | свестру | свеструс | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | возтрос | возтріс | возтрѡ | падрос | падріс | падрѡ | тросѳіс | свестріс | свестроѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | возтрі | возтраму | возтрíм | падрі | падраму | падрíм | свестрі | свестрíму | свестрíм |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | возтры | падры | свестры | ||||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | возтре́ | возтрíс | возтре́с | падре́ | падрíс | падре́с | свестре́ | свестрíс | свестре́с |
Adjective declension is highly regular, with the only irregularity being found in the stem used to conjugate the comparative and superlative of a few common adjectives. Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in number, case and gender.
Tuldian indefinite adjectives have 3 declensions, determined by the ending of the nominative singular in the masculine. In Tuldian, there are no definite articles, so the only way of expressing definiteness is through the adjectival declensions. Some grammarians call these adjectives ‘strong adjectives’ and the definite adjectives ‘weak adjectives’, but they are most often called definite and indefinite adjectives. There is no vocative in the indefinite declensions, as the definite is always used in direct address, thus indefinite adjectives only decline to 6 cases.
1st declension adjectives
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | улбс | улбу | улбі | улба | улбі | улбас |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | улбан | улбус | улбу | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | улба | улбіс | улбѡ | улбрас | улбріс | улбрѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | улбам | улбаму | улбам | улбрай | улбра́му | улбемас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | улбан | улбем | улбры | улбеміс | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | улба́ | улбíс | улбос | улбра́ | улбрíс | улбеніс |
2nd declension adjectives
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ѯы́ніс | ѯы́ню | ѯы́ни | ѯы́ні | ѯы́ни | ѯы́нѧс |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ѯы́нѧн | ѯы́нюс | ѯы́ню | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | ѯы́нѣ | ѯы́нис | ѯы́нѫ | ѯы́нерас | ѯы́неріс | ѯы́нерѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | ѯы́нѣм | ѯы́нѧму | ѯы́нѣм | ѯы́нерай | ѯы́нера́му | ѯы́нэмас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | ѯы́нѣн | ѯы́нэм | ѯы́неры | ѯы́нэміс | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | ѯы́нѧ́ | ѯы́ни́с | ѯы́нѫс | ѯы́нера́ | ѯы́нерíс | ѯы́нэніс |
3rd declension adjectives
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | нарус | нару | нари | нарі | нари | нарѧс |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | нарун | нарус | нарю | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | нару | нарѡс | нарѫ | нарерас | нареріс | нарерѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | нарум | наруму | нарум | нарерай | нарера́му | нарэмас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | нарун | нареры | нарэміс | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | нару́ | нару́с | нарос | нарера́ | нарерíс | нарэніс |
Second and third declension adjectives are only distinct in their masculine indefinite forms; their feminine forms and definite forms are entirely identical to each other. Thus, although there are three indefinite declensions, there are only two definite declensions in Tuldian.
The definite declension is used to refer to specific individuals, known people or things or things for which the adjective is a defining characteristic. Definite adjectives are also used in vocative statements, possessive pronouns and determiners. Otherwise indefinite adjectives are used. The definite declension is descended from the 4th and 7th nominal declensions, and its forms closely resemble them.
Another thing to note is that all ordinal numbers, and the adjective вѣкнѡ – own, are always definite, other than анѳарс – second, which is always indefinite.
1st declension adjectives
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | улбѡ | улбену | улбеніс | улбу́ | улбуні | улбуніс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | улбен | улбун | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | улбенус | улбунус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | улбенс | улбеніс | улбенѡ | улбунс | улбуніс | улбунѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | улбені | улбенаму | улбенам | улбуні | улбуна́му | улбумас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | улбене | улбуне | улбуміс | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | улбене́ | улбенíс | улбенос | улбуне́ | улбунíс | улбуніс |
2nd and 3rd declension adjectives
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | шы́нѫ | шы́нэну | шы́нэніс | шы́ню́ | шы́нюні | шы́нюніс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | шы́нэн | шы́нюн | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | шы́нэнус | шы́нюнус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | шы́нэнс | шы́нэніс | шы́нэнѡ | шы́нюнс | шы́нюніс | шы́нюнѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | шы́нэні | шы́нэнаму | шы́нэнам | шы́нюні | шы́нюна́му | шы́нюмас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | шы́нэне | шы́нюне | шы́нюміс | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | шы́нэне́ | шы́нэнíс | шы́нэнос | шы́нюне́ | шы́нюнíс | шы́нюніс |
Some examples of situations when the different declensions are used includes:
- ѧпа ѕемт па́тренс плодус рѧ́ Рíгас – japa dzemt mīns pātrens plodus ŗā Rīgas – a stupid cousin from Rīga is coming as well
- ѧпа ѕемт мíнс па́тренс пложѡ рѧ́ Рíгас – japa dzemt mīns pātrens pložuo no Rīgas – my stupid cousin from Rīga is coming as well (definite due to the possessive pronoun)
- шы́ні ѕенс ста́т эре – šȳni dzens stāt jere– a beautiful woman is over there right now
- шы́ню́ ѕенс ста́т эре – šȳņū dzens stāt jere – the beautiful woman is over there right now
- геб инь сытѣм бе́рнам– geb jiņ sytėm bērnam – give it to (some) hungry children
- геб инь сышенам бе́рнам– geb jiņ syšenam bērnam – give it to the hungry children
Tuldian adjectives also decline for two different degrees of comparison, the comparative and the superlative. They are the equivalents of the English -er and -est endings of adjectives. There are a small number of adjectives that have irregular comparative and superlative stems:
positive | meaning | comparative | superlative |
---|---|---|---|
ѵдіс | good | бетрѡ | бестс |
мілкс | big | ма́рѡ | местс |
ма́гс | many | лирѡ | листс |
лайѕс | small | міжѡ | мінѧстс |
мíніс | bad | вессѡ | вестс |
пѣ́с | few | лассѡ | лѣстс |
comparative adjectives
Comparative adjectives are always definite, and almost always end in -р(ел)ѡ, aside from a few irregular comparatives. For 1st declension adjectives, the ending is added directly to the stem, but for 2nd and 3rd declension adjectives, they both end in -ір(ел)ѡ. Also, unlike the standard definite declension, the feminine ends in -е́ rather than -у́. The (ел) that can be added to the ending changes the meaning to be “a little bit more”. For example, ма́рѡ means ‘bigger’, but ма́релѡ means ‘a little bigger’.
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | улбрѡ | улбрену | улбреніс | улбре́ | улбрені | улбреніс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | улбрен | улбрен | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | улбренус | улбренус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | улбренс | улбреніс | улбренѡ | улбренс | улбреніс | улбренѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | улбрені | улбренаму | улбренам | улбрені | улбрена́му | улбремас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | улбрене | улбрене | улбреміс | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | улбрене́ | улбренíс | улбенос | улбрене́ | улбренíс | улбреніс |
Superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives can be both definite and indefinite, although the indefinite is normally used even in contexts where a definite adjective is normally used. 1st declension nouns end in –астс, and 2nd and 3rd declension nouns in -істс. Superlative adjectives have both definite and indefinite forms.
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | улбастс | улбасту | улбасті | улбаста | улбасті | улбастас |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | улбастан | улбастус | улбасту | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | улбаста | улбастіс | улбастѡ | улбастрас | улбастріс | улбастрѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | улбастам | улбастаму | улбастам | улбастрай | улбастра́му | улбастемас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | улбастан | улбастем | улбастры | улбастеміс | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | улбаста́ | улбастíс | улбастос | улбастра́ | улбастрíс | улбастеніс |
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | улбастѡ | улбастену | улбастеніс | улбасте́ | улбастені | улбастеніс |
VOCVocative (case) 'O [addressee]' | улбастен | улбастен | ||||
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | улбастенус | улбастенус | ||||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | улбастенс | улбастеніс | улбастенѡ | улбастенс | улбастеніс | улбастенѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | улбастені | улбастенаму | улбастенам | улбастені | улбастена́му | улбастемас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | улбастене | улбастене | улбастеміс | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | улбастене́ | улбастенíс | улбенос | улбастене́ | улбастенíс | улбастеніс |
Some examples of degrees of adjectives include:
- ір ѕенс шы́ніста ѣвра́ жеменс – dzens šȳnista ir jėvrā žemens – she’s the most beautiful woman in all the world
- ца́кирелѡ ѣм пар инь – cāķireluo jėm par jiņ– I’m a little bit stronger than him
- ір манюс лиренус шіра́ пробле́мы – ir maņus ļirenus širā problēmy – there are more people with this problem
Tuldian is a pro-drop language, meaning that use of personal pronouns is optional, as the verb conjugation already indicates the subject of a verb. Thus, including the pronouns can be used for emphasis. Also, despite the fact that the dual number has entirely died out in the verbal paradigm and is largely restricted to formal speech and writting for most speakers, the dual personal pronouns are used freely in normal everyday speech.
1.SG | 1.DU | 1.PL | 2.SG | 2.DU | 2.PL | REFL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ас | мет | ме́с | ѳу | ю́т | ю́с | - |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ме | ус | мы | ѳе | ырс | се | |
GENGenitive (case) possessive | міна | уці | мус | ѳіна | ыпі | ыра | сіна |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | міре | уціс | мумс | ѳіре | ыпіс | ымс | сіре |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | міра | ѳіра | сіра | ||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | мíна | у́ці | мы́с | ѳíна | ы́пі | ы́рс | сíна |
1.SG | 1.DU | 1.PL | 2.SG | 2.DU | 2.PL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ис | иду | и́с | сі | иду́ | игѧс |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | инь | идун | инс | игь | ||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | ес | ижі | ерѡ | ирас | ижі | ерѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | има | ижам | имс | ирай | ижам | ира́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | инѧ | ира | ||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | и́нѧ | и́жі | и́ра | и́ра | и́жі | и́ра |
As mentioned above, given that the conjugation of verbs already specifies the subject of a verb, the subject pronoun is not required for a sentence to make sense. Its inclusion is often used to intensify the action of a verb. For example:
- ражну бру́тс – he will destroy the house
- ис пру́тс ражну – it is him that will destroy the house
- рíце ѣм ере́жінс – I have spoken to the king
- ас ѣм рíце ере́жінс – It is me that has spoken to the king
Sometimes, with perfect transitive verbs, it is even possible to omit third person object pronouns, especially if it is already clear from the context, as the past participle is conjugated to the accusative which indicates the presence of the object pronoun. For example:
- ѣм егуѳенан – I have said it
- іс риегубену – you have forgiven her
- ерум еѯо́нус– we have seen them
Numbers in Thuldian are quite complicated in how they work. With numbers 1-19, they are treated like adjectives, which agree with the noun that follows them. For larger numbers, they function as nouns, with the noun following them in the genitive. For example, “I gave food to six men” would be written габу падан сеѯам вíрам – gabu padan sexam vīram, whereas “I gave food to sixty men” would be габу падан сеѯтíндай вíрѡ – gabu padan sextīndai vīruo.
0 | нулле | 10 | тежу | 20 | двантігь |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | вѣнс | 11 | вѣныпі | 30 | ѳрíтігь |
2 | двай | 12 | двалпі | 40 | піртігь |
3 | ѳрíс | 13 | ѳріте́ну | 50 | піктігь |
4 | підра́ | 14 | пірте́ну | 60 | сеѯтíнда |
5 | пенки | 15 | пікте́ну | 70 | сеѱтíнда |
6 | сеѯі | 16 | сеѯте́ну | 80 | актíнда |
7 | сеѱу | 17 | сеѱте́ну | 90 | невтíнда |
8 | акта́ | 18 | акте́ну | 100 | жунда |
9 | неву | 19 | невте́ну | 1000 | ѳу́сунде |
вѣнс
The number вѣнс (1) is declined as a regular first declension adjective. The plural forms are used to mean “some”, as in вѣні бе́рні – some children.
masculine | feminine | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | вѣнс | вѣну | вѣні | вѣна | вѣні | вѣнас |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | вѣнан | вѣнус | вѣну | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | вѣна | вѣніс | вѣнѡ | вѣнрас | вѣнріс | вѣнрѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | вѣнам | вѣнаму | вѣнам | вѣнрай | вѣнра́му | вѣнемас |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | вѣнан | вѣнем | вѣнры | вѣнеміс | ||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | вѣна́ | вѣнíс | вѣнос | вѣнра́ | вѣнрíс | вѣненіс |
двай and ѳрíс
Numbers 2 and 3 are highly irregular in comparison to other numbers.
двай | ѳрíс | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | двай | двѣ | ѳрíс | ѳріѧ |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | дванс | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | двагѫ | ѳріѫ | ||
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | двам | два́м | ѳрíм | |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | ||||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | двагѫс | двагѧ́с | ѳрíс |
Numbers 4-19
The declension of numbers larger than 4 is more regular, and can be roughly divided into 3 different classes depending on the ending of the number, although all of them decline rather similarly.
-а́ | -і | -у | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | |
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | підра́ | підрас | сеѯі | сеѯес | сеѱу | сеѱус |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | підрус | сеѯус | сеѱус | |||
GENGenitive (case) possessive | підрѡ | сеѯѡ | сеѱѡ | |||
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | підрам | підра́м | сеѯам | сеѯа́м | сеѱам | сеѱа́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | підрем | сеѯем | сеѱем | |||
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | підрос | підра́с | сеѯос | сеѯа́с | сеѱос | сеѱа́с |
Numbers 20-90
Numbers 20-50 decline as a plural 3rd declension masculine nouns, whereas 60-90 as 5th declension singular feminine nouns. They do not agree with the gender of a noun.
-тігь | -тíнда | |
---|---|---|
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | -тігь | -тíнда |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | -тігус | -тíнду |
GENGenitive (case) possessive | -тігѫ | -тíндас |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | -тігум | -тíндай |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | -тíнды | |
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | -тігос | -тíнда́ |
Numbers 100-900
Numbers 100-900 decline as regular 5th declension feminine nouns. 100 is declined as a singular noun, whereas 200-900 as plural nouns.
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
---|---|---|
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | жунда | жундас |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | жунду | |
GENGenitive (case) possessive | жундас | жундѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | жундай | жунда́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | жунды | |
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | жунда́ | жунда́с |
The forms 200-900 are as follows: двіжундас (200), ѳріжундас (300), підрундас (400), пенкюндас (500), сеѯундас (600), сеѱундас (700), актундас (800) and невундас (900).
Numbers 1,000+
Numbers 1,000+ are declined as regular 6th declension feminine nouns.
SGSingular (number) one countable entity | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
---|---|---|
NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | ѳу́сунде | ѳу́сундес |
ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ѳу́сунді | |
GENGenitive (case) possessive | ѳу́сундес | ѳу́суньжѡ |
DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | ѳу́сундей | ѳу́сунде́м |
INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | ѳу́сунды | |
LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | ѳу́сунде́ | ѳу́сунде́с |
The forms 2,000+ are as follows: двіѳу́сундес (2,000), ѳріѳу́сундес (3,000), підѳу́сундес (4,000), пенту́сундес (5,000), сеѯту́сундес (6,000), сеѱту́сундес (7,000), акту́сундес (8,000), невѳу́сундес (9,000), тежту́сундес (10,000), двантігьѳу́сундес (20,000), жундаѳу́сундес (100,000), and двіжундасту́сундес (200,000) etc.
When counting in Tuldian from 20 up, the one comes before the ten like in German and unlike in English. For example, twenty-one in English is written вѣнсудвантігюс, or “one-and-twenty”. Twenty-one to twenty-nine is written as following:
- 21: вѣнсудвантігь
- 22: дваюдвантігь
- 23: ѳрíсудвантігь
- 24: підрудвантігь
- 25: пенкудвантігь
- 26: сеѯудвантігь
- 27: сеѱудвантігь
- 28: актудвантігь
- 29: невудвантігь
Long numbers are written as long words: ѳріжундаспідрудвантігьѳу́сундесневундаспенкусеѯтíнда – ţrižundaspidrūdvantiģţūsundesnevundaspenkusextīnda (324,965).
Tuldian uses a short-scale system to create large numbers, with each name of a number larger than 1,000,000 being 1000 times larger than the previous one. There is міліонс (million), міліардс (billion), тріліонс (trillion), квадріліонс (patrillion) etc. For numbers larger than 1,000,000, the scale word is set in the genitive. Thus for example, seven billion is септу міліардо.
As mentioned in the adjective section, ordinal numbers (besides анѳарс – second, which uses both strong and weak declensions), are always declined definitely, although their declension in the feminine uses the -е́ forms like comparitive adjectives, rather than -у́. They are equivalent to the English -th.
0 | - | 10 | теждѡ | 20 | двантігьѳѡ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | пірмѡ | 11 | вѣныптѡ | 30 | ѳрíтігьѳѡ |
2 | анѳарс | 12 | двалтѡ | 40 | піртігьѳѡ |
3 | ѳріѕѡ | 13 | ѳріте́нѳѡ | 50 | піктігьѳѡ |
4 | пірѳѡ | 14 | пірте́нѳѡ | 60 | сеѯтíнѕѡ |
5 | пентѡ | 15 | пікте́нѳѡ | 70 | сеѱтíнѕѡ |
6 | сеѯтѡ | 16 | сеѯте́нѳѡ | 80 | актíнѕѡ |
7 | сеѱтѡ | 17 | сеѱте́нѳѡ | 90 | невтíнѕѡ |
8 | акцѡ | 18 | акте́нѳѡ | 100 | жунѕѡ |
9 | невтѡ | 19 | невте́нѳѡ | 1000 | ѳу́сунѕѡ |
Numbers larger than a million just have -ѳа́ added to their ends to form the ordinal form. ✎ Edit Article ✖ Delete Article
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