Ulyan syntax test sentences
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218 test sentences for the syntax of Ulyan
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 24 Dec 2017, 01:04.
[comments] ulysyntax
2. Ulyan Adjectives
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3. Ulyan Adpositions
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8. Ulyan Comparatives
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9. Ulyan Conjunctions
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13. Ulyan Interjections
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14. Ulyan Irregular Verbs
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16. Ulyan number system
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17. Ulyan Pronouns
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20. Ulyan Verbs
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21. Ulyan Word Order
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?FYI...
This article is a work in progress! Check back later in case any changes have occurred.
This article is a work in progress! Check back later in case any changes have occurred.
Working through the 218 “conlang syntax test cases” posted in various places around the Internet, like here.
- The sun shines.
Anupni eliod.
anup-ni el-iod
shine-GNRGeneric (mood)
Generic or timeless truths DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun is shining.
Atusanup eliod.
at-us-anup el-iod
PRESPresent tense (tense)
current-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-shine DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun shone.
Edanup eliod.
ed-anup el-iod
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-shine DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun will shine.
Ifanup eliod.
if-anup el-iod
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-shine DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun has been shining.
Atanupus eliod.
at-anup-us el-iod
PRESPresent tense (tense)
current-shine-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun is shining again.
Ananupus jnaj eliod.
at-anup-us jnaj el-iod
PRESPresent tense (tense)
current-shine-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action again DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun will shine tomorrow.
Ifanup mïnir eliod.
if-anup mïnir el-iod
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-shine tomorrow DEFDefinite
"the"-sun
- The sun shines brightly.
Anup flethyi iod.
anup flethyi iod
shine brightly sun
Definitive “the”, used in previous examples, is not actually required.
- The bright sun shines.
Anup iod fleth.
anup iod fleth
shine sun bright
- The sun is rising now.
Ikolo nïs iod.
ik-olo nïs iod
INCEPInceptive (aspect)
beginning of an action-go_up now sun
- All the people shouted.
Edmlaut enaza jda.
ed-mlaut ena-za jda
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-shout person-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument all
- Some of the people shouted.
Edmlaut enaza jdo.
ed-mlaut ena-za jdo
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-shout person-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument some
- Many of the people shouted twice.
Edmlaut fucï enaza jdï.
ed-mlaut fucï ena-za jdï
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-shout twice person-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument many
- Happy people often shout.
Utcmlautni enaza ceil.
utc-mlaut-ni ena-za ceil.
HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-shout-GNRGeneric (mood)
Generic or timeless truths person-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument happy
”Generic” mood (general truth). Habitual/Frequentative aspect used for "often".
- The kitten jumped up.
Edvaumuj mraumnia.
ed-vau(n)-muj mraumnia
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-up-jump kitten
- The kitten jumped onto the table.
Edvaumuj mraumnia nujnente.
ed-vau(n)-muj mraumnia nu(n)-jnen-te
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-up-jump kitten on_top_of-table-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- My little kitten walked away.
Edodopald cmïlmraumnia imua.
edo-do-pald cmïl-mraumnia imua
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-away-walk little-kitten 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
Possessed nouns come before possessees (GEN case).
- It's raining.
Usocmal iren.
uso-smal iren
CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-fall rain
- The rain came down.
Edmauvrus.
ed-mau(j)-vrus
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-go_down-rain
Could also be: PAST-fall rain; ed-cmal iren.
- The kitten is playing in the rain.
Usozgup mraumnia peimirente.
uso-zgup mraumnia peim-iren-te
CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-play kitten in-rain-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- The rain has stopped.
Emvrus.
em-vrus
CESCessative (aspect)
exiting/ending a state-rain
”The rain is stopped/stopping.”
- Soon the rain will stop.
Ifemvrus ajuït.
if-em-vrus ajuït
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-CESCessative (aspect)
exiting/ending a state-rain soon
- I hope the rain stops soon.
Ifemvrusavo ajuït.
if-em-vrus-(a)vo ajuït
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-CESCessative (aspect)
exiting/ending a state-rain-OPTOptative (mood)
'wish, hope' soon
Could also use be: desire 1S [SR CES-rain soon]; thox im a em-vrus ajuït: Thox im a emvrus ajuït.
- Once wild animals lived here.
Edjwet tlaukyi tiak dauksa.
ed-jwet tlaukyi tiak dauk-sa
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-dwell historically here beast-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
Plural of "wild animal", dauk-za, turns into dauk-sa.
- Slowly she looked around.
Fedzok merjyi vreis.
f-ed-zok merj-yi vreis
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-look slow-ADVZAdverbialiser (syntax)
turns word into adverb around
Verb "zok" means both "see" and "look". Using the "movement" form of the "around" adposition because the looking is not static.
- Go away!
Fuozg dof!
fuo-zg dof
go-IMPImperative (mood)
command go_away
Or perhaps: leave-IMP: Nlixzg! Also note adpositions come in "movement" or "static" forms; "dof" is away (movement) or "(go) away", "dwom" is away (static) or just "away".
- Let's go!
Jifuoïl!
ji-fuo-ïl
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-go-HORTHortative (mood)
'let's...'
- You should go.
Pifuoc.
pi-fuo-c
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-go-SUGGSuggestive mood (mood)
suggestion, 'should', 'ought'
- I will be happy to go.
Mifuo ceilyi.
m-if-fuo ceil-yi
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-go happy-ADVZAdverbialiser (syntax)
turns word into adverb
Lit: "I will happily go". Note the merging of "if-" and "fuo" into "ifuo".
- He will arrive soon.
Fifadzoc adjuït.
f-ifa-dzoc adjuït
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-arrive soon
- The baby's ball has rolled away.
Edopaclol thuek dof pemp vïvava.
ed-opa-clol thuek dof pemp vïvi-va
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-roll PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed go_away ball baby-GENGenitive (case)
possessive
"Roll" is transitive as in "I roll the ball", so in this case the passive auxillary verb is used.
- The two boys are working together.
Ustrok vnüzi elmlutsa fu.
us-trok vnüzi el-mlut-za fu
CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-work together DEFDefinite
"the"-boy-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few two
mlut+za becomes mlutsa.
- This mist will probably clear away.
Ozdifujumlot vrïzgolg.
ozd-if-ujumlot vrï-zgolg
INFRInferential (mood/evidential)
reports or infers without confirming-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-dissipate PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-mist
Inferential evidential adds the sense of "I infer that...", "it appears that...", or "probably".
- Lovely flowers are growing everywhere.
Usojruïs vlodja jezu.
uso-jruïs vlodj-(j)a jezu
CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-grow flower-INNInnumerable (number)
too many to be counted beautiful
"Innumerable" used to indicate "everywhere", as in "a great many all over"
- We should eat more slowly.
Jmleisüc komerjyi.
j-mleis-üc ko=merjyi
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-eat-SUGGSuggestive mood (mood)
suggestion, 'should', 'ought' COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better'=slowly
- You have come too soon.
Fopadzoc aduït miu.
f-opa-dzoc aduït miu
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-arrive soon too_much
- You must write more neatly.
Futcemijm kodraikyi.
f-utce-mij-m ko= draikyi
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-write-NCSSNecessitative mood (mood)
must, have to COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better'=neatly
- Directly opposite stands a wonderful palace.
Deik jnizaun avotckua thirtcenvwi.
deik jni=zaun av-otckua thirtcenvwi
stand very=opposite_from INDEFIndefinite
a nonspecific referent-mansion wonderful
Comparative/degree clitics can be applied to adpositions as well as adjectives, adverbs, etc.
- Henry's dog is lost.
Tet gron xenriva xletaido.
tet gron xenri-va xletai-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate dog henry-GENGenitive (case)
possessive lost-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- My cat is black.
Tet mraum imua moxdo.
tet mraum imua mox-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate cat 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.GENGenitive (case)
possessive black-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- The little girl's doll is broken.
Tet nalis laelva cmïl zgaudo.
tet nalis lael-va cmïl zgaut-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate doll girl-GENGenitive (case)
possessive little broken-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- I usually sleep soundly.
Mutcejirm tsuryi.
m-utce-jirm tsur-yi
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-sleep strong-ADVZAdverbialiser (syntax)
turns word into adverb
- The children ran after Jack.
Edkür elmotaza lodjak.
ed-kür el-mota-za lo(f)=djak
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-run DEFDefinite
"the"-child-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument following=jack
- I can play after school.
Mifadzetik treja nlix im byelülido.
m-ifa-dzet-ik treja nlix im byelüli-do
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-play-ABILAbilitative (mood)
expresses ability after leave 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I school-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- We went to the village for a visit.
Jifuo tirisk pwe kwazg oms.
j-if-fuo tir=isk pwe kwazg oms
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-go go_to=village for_purpose visit 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)
- We arrived at the river.
Jedzoc mizge.
j-ed-dzoc mi(m)=zge
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-arrive at=river
- I have been waiting for you.
Medopetu pwe dzocri ep.
m-ed-op-petu pwe dzoc-ri ep
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-wait for_purpose arrive-HYPHypothetical (mood)
if, or 'it could be' 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)
- The campers sat around the fire.
Edran kojgeithza zgïthotcdo.
ed-dran kojgeith-za zgï(z)=thotc-do
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-sit camper-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few around=fire-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- A little girl with a kitten sat near me.
Edran mimima fedjgem mraumniado kai lael cmïl.
ed-dran mim=ima f-ed-jgem mraumnia-do kai lael cmïl
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-sit near=1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-has kitten-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient RELRelative girl little
- The child waited at the door for her father.
Edopetu mivlaxte mota pwe futcri mraf ivwa.
edo-petu mi(m)=vlax-te mota pwe futc-ri mraf ivwa
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-wait at=door-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc child for_purpose come-HYPHypothetical (mood)
if, or 'it could be' father 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- Yesterday the oldest girl in the village lost her kitten.
Edxlet xwenïl lael iskva stïved mraumniado ivwa.
ed-xlet xwenïl lael isk-va stï=ved mraumnia-do ivwa
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-lose yesterday girl village-GENGenitive (case)
possessive SUPSuperlative (comparison)
English 'most', '-est'=old kitten-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
Coud also be: "girl SUP=old than/of/compared_to villagers", lael stï=ved gï iskeithza"
- Were you born in this village?
Pedojvilïmwa peivrïiskte?
p-edo-jvilïm-wa pei(m)=vrï-isk-te
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-be_born-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions in=PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker-village-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- Can your brother dance well?
Dansukwa vamavwiyi zvïn epua?
dansu-k-wa vamavwiyi zvïn epua
dance-ABILAbilitative (mood)
expresses ability-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions skillfully sibling 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).GENGenitive (case)
possessive
"Sibling" is generally the default term. Gender-explicit brother would be zvïnïb
- Did the man leave?
Edonlixwa vrab?
edo-nlix-wa vrab
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-leave-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions man
- Is your sister coming for you?
Usfutcwa zvïnïth epua pwe efuskazveit?
us-futc-wa zvïnïth epua pwe ef-uska-zveit
CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-come-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions sister 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).GENGenitive (case)
possessive for_purpose 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee>2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-ASSAssumptive (mood/evid)
assumed truth-get
"for you" is vague, assuming it means "to pick you up" or "to fetch you". Assumptive evidential/mood not strictly required.
- Can you come tomorrow?
Pifutcikwa mïnir?
p-if-futc-ik-wa mïnir
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-come-ABILAbilitative (mood)
expresses ability-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions tomorrow
- Have the neighbors gone away for the winter?
Edodofuowa mijwiguza zaul gol dauth?
edo-do(f)=fuo-wa mijwigu-za zaul gol dauth
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-go_away=go-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions neighbor-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few while there_is winter
- Does the robin sing in the rain?
Tliswa mrili peimiren?
tlis-wa mrili peim=iren
sing-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions robin in=rain
- Are you going with us to the concert?
Ksü pifuo tisuïvdelasente caizoms?
ksü p-if-fuo ti(r)=suïvdelasen-te caiz=oms
QInterrogative
question 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-go go_to=concert-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc among=1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)
The LOC suffix is commonly used but generally not strictly required when used with adposition-nouns. Also, the pronoun oms, 1P ("us"), could be rendered omsa, 1P.LOC.
- Have you ever travelled in the jungle?
Medïvbawa vleiwos peijmagte?
m-ed-ïvba-wa vleiwos pei(m)=jmag-te
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-travel-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions ever in=jungle-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- We sailed down the river for several miles.
Jedothas joizge verc asuferza jdo.
j-edo-thas joi(s)=zge verc asufer-za jdo
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-sail go_along=river how_far mile-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few several
"Asufer" is an Ulyan unit roughly equal to a mile.
- Everybody knows about hunting.
Tainenprosni jdena.
tainen-pros-ni jdena
hunting-know-GNRGeneric (mood)
Generic or timeless truths everybody
- On a Sunny morning after the solstice we started for the mountains.
Jedikïvba tlomrosti ksïz avorotlal fleth treja glimok.
j-ed-ik-ïvba tlo(c)=mro-sti ksïz av-orotlal fleth treja glimok
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-INCEPInceptive (aspect)
beginning of an action-travel go_toward=mountain-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc when INDEFIndefinite
a nonspecific referent-morning bright after solstice
- Tom laughed at the monkey's tricks.
Edotwax tam jlortc osïdenza jmatuva.
edo-twax tam jlortc osïden-za jmatu-va
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-laugh tom why trick-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few monkey-GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- An old man with a walking stick stood beside the fence.
Edodeik fedkeil jnolado kai vrab ved mipoltcte.
edo-deik f-ed-keil jnola-do kai vrab ved mi(m)=poltc-te
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-stand 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-hold staff-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient RELRelative man old beside=fence-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- The squirrel's nest was hidden by drooping boughs.
Edweith thuek jwaum prïnva jgautc dafaza vluthl.
ed-weith thuek jwaum prïn-va jgautc dafa-za vluthl
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-hide PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed dwelling squirrel-GENGenitive (case)
possessive how branch-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few drooping
Passive voice could be avoided with "Drooping boughs hid the squirrel's nest".
- The little seeds waited patiently under the snow for the warm spring sun.
Edopetu mudüyi memiza cmïl bezvilthte vek iod tsirnid dra olth.
edo-petu mudüyi memi-za cmïl be(b)=zvilth-te vek iod tsirnid dra olth
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-wait patiently seed-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few little under=snow-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc for sun vernal and warm
- Many little girls with wreaths of flowers on their heads danced around the bonfire.
Edodansu vedctek jentloza vlodjid kai laelza cmïl jdi vreidavotc.
edo-dansu v-ed-ctek jentloz-za vlodjid kai lael-za cmïl jdi vrei(s)=davotc
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-dance 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-wear wreath-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few flowery RELRelative girl-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few little many go_around=bonfire
- The cover of the basket fell to the floor.
Edcmal vothür gïlva yaojutlte.
ed-cmal vothür gïl-va yao(r)=jutl-te
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-fall cover basket-GENGenitive (case)
possessive (go)_on_top_of=floor-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- The first boy in the line stopped at the entrance.
Edmaskas mimitsadate mlut a fitet dava sïcyïdj.
ed-em-skas mim=itsada-te mlut a fi-tet dava sï(n)=cyïdj
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-CESCessative (aspect)
exiting/ending a state-move at=entrance-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc boy SRSubordinator
marks subordinate clause 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate first along=queue
Relative clause ("3S-COP first along=queue" placed after head noun ("boy") for clarity, especially given the other adpositional phrase ("at=entrance").
- On the top of the hill in a little hut lived a wise old woman.
Edjwet nunijgete dra tsorotcatcete cmïl vrith neth dra ved.
ed-jwet nun=ijg-e-te dra tsor=otcatc-e-te cmïl vrith neth dra ved
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-dwell on_top_of=hill-EEpenthetic
something 'meaningless' inserted for structural reasons-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc and in=hut-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc little woman wise and old
Add "e" between "ijg" and "te", and "otcatc" and "te", to break up awkward clusters.
- During our residence in the country we often walked in the pastures.
Jedutcepald sïbelmimaniasti ksïz jedjwet peibovemte.
j-ed-utce-pald sïb=el-mimania-sti ksïz j-ed-jwet pei(m)=bovem-te
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit-walk through=DEFDefinite
"the"-pasture-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc when 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-dwell in=country-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- When will your guests from the city arrive?
Ifadzoc vusfutc dovik kai kwazgeithza epua clek?
ifa-dzoc v-us-futc do(f)=vik kai kwazgeith-za epua clek
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-arrive 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-come go_from=city RELRelative visitor-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).GENGenitive (case)
possessive when
- Near the mouth of the river, its course turns sharply towards the East.
Sudokidjipidyi zge mivemi ivwa.
su(th)-doki-djipidyi zge mi(m)=vemi ivwa
go_eastward-turn-sharply river near=river_mouth 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- Between the two lofty mountains lay a fertile valley.
Ged ckiunelmrokuaza fu avojdo lïth.
ged ckiu(n)=el-mrokua-za fu av-voj-do lïth
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech.exist between=DEFDefinite
"the"-big_mountain-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few two INDEFIndefinite
a nonspecific referent-valley-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient fertile
- Among the wheat grew tall red poppies.
Edjruïs caizwiyol jluvloza dzem dol.
ed-jruïs cai(z)=wiyol jluvloj-za dzem dol
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-grow among=wheat poppy-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few red tall
- The strong roots of the oak trees were torn from the ground.
Edflil thuek zmuejgim drudza tsur rozvi.
ed-flil thuek zmue(l)=jgïm drud-za tsur ros-zvi
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-pull PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed out_of=ground root-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few strong oak_tree-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- The sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.
Edmauzok jathdafaza tir vusozgup kai motazmi.
ed-mau(j)=zok ja(th)=dafa-za tir v-uso-zgup kai mota-zmi
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-go_down=see go_through=branch-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few go_to 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-play RELRelative child-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
- The west wind blew across my face like a friendly caress.
Edïlgu elsuthol gavrïdjmo imua jgautc gizg myenid.
ed-ïlgu el-suthol ga(t)=vrïdj-mo imua jgautc gizg myenid
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-move DEFDefinite
"the"-go_east=wind go_across=face-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.GENGenitive (case)
possessive like touch friendly
- The spool of thread rolled across the floor.
Edoclol gajutl miacivraol.
edo-clol ga(t)=jutl miaci-vraol
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-roll go_across=floor thread-spool
- A box of growing plants stood in the Window.
Edusdeik jrebeith vusojruïs kai tinzvi peitatcte.
ed-us-deik jrebeith v-uso-jruïs kai tin-zvi pei(m)=tatc-te
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-stand box 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-grow RELRelative plant-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.GENGenitive (case)
possessive in=window-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- I am very happy.
Mitet jniceil.
mi-tet jni=ceil
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate EMINEminentive (degree)
an adjectival degree, eg. "very big"=happy
- These oranges are juicy.
Tet vrianiniza jmejdo.
tet vria-nini-za jmej-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few-citrus_fruit-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few juicy-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Sea water is salty.
Tet vas etlova tsauckido.
tet vas etlo-va tsauckid-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate water sea-GENGenitive (case)
possessive salty-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- The streets are full of people.
Gol yaitlanasti enaja.
gol yai(c)= tlana-sti ena-ja
exist all_over=street-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc person-INNInnumerable (number)
too many to be counted
- Sugar tastes sweet.
Zïzuniatceidni thuek zïzun.
zïzunia-tceid-ni thuek zïzun
sweet-taste-GNRGeneric (mood)
Generic or timeless truths PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed sugar
- The fire feels hot.
Aksecmeith elthotcdo.
akse-cmeith el-thotc-do glec
WITWitness (evidential)
speaker witnessed action-feel DEFDefinite
"the"-fire-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient hot
- The little girl seemed lonely.
Edotsiam cmïlael dopodo.
edo-tsiam cmïlael dopo-do
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-seem girl little lonely-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- The little boy's father had once been a sailor.
Opatlet mraf cmïlutva thaseithdo.
opa-tlet mraf cmïlut-va thaseith-do
PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech.COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate father little_boy-GENGenitive (case)
possessive sailor-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
Perfective aspect used for perfect tense formations.
- I have lost my blanket.
Mopaxlet vothsado imua.
m-opa-xlet vothsa-do imua
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-lose blanket-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- A robin has built his nest in the apple tree.
Opagenk peipetate mrili vleltotcdo ivwa.
opa-genk pei(m)=petat-te mrili vleltotc-do ivwa
PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-build in=apple_tree-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc robin nest-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
"petat-te" collapses to "petate".
- At noon we ate our lunch by the roadside.
Jedmleis mitlante lamïlemdo ünu ksïz tcïfutal.
j-ed-mleis mi(m)=tlan-te lamïlem-do ünu ksïz tcïfutal
1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-eat by=road-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc lunch-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive).GENGenitive (case)
possessive when midday
- Mr. Jones made a knife for his little boy.
Edmak djonz avatrïlzdo cmïlutmo ivwa.
ed-mak djonz ava-trïlz-do cmïlut-mo ivwa
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-make jones INDEFIndefinite
a nonspecific referent-knife-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient little_boy-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- Their voices sound very happy.
Aksyethri blithenzli jniceildo.
aks-yeth-ri blithen-zli jni=ceil-do
WITWitness (evidential)
speaker witnessed action-hear-HYPHypothetical (mood)
if, or 'it could be' talk-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient EMINEminentive (degree)
an adjectival degree, eg. "very big"=happy-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Is today Monday?
Tetwa vanïl nir dava?
tetwa vanïl nir dava
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions today day first
No direct equivalent to "Monday", so using "first day" instead. Also, "vanïl" (today) functions as an adverb.
- Have all the leaves fallen from the tree?
Ksü edckit thuek dozgot estiza jda.
ksü ed-ckit thuek do(f)=zgot esti-za jda
QInterrogative
question PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-drop PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed go_from=tree leaf-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few all
- Will you be ready on time?
Pitiwa plekyi tïthido?
pi-tiwa plekyi tïthi-do
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech.COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions punctually ready-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Will you send this message for me?
Dlui im pifamletwa lapado imua?
dlui im p-ifa-mlet-wa lapa-do imua
please 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-send-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions message-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
the interjection "please" optionally allows the speaker to be indicated, which can function as "please, for me", or, using an interrogative verb, something like "would you please me by doing X?"
- Are you waiting for me?
Puspetuwa iam?
p-us-petu-wa iam
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-wait-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
- Is this the first kitten of the litter?
Tetwa vrïmraumnia mraumniado dava mlanenanenva?
tetwa vrï-mraumnia mraumnia-do dava mlanenanen-va
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker-kitten kitten-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient first litter-GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- Are these shoes too big for you?
Tetwa vriabyuza kodav gï pictekik?
tetwa vria-byus-za ko=dav gï pi-ctek-ik
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few-shoe-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better'=big than 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-wear-ABILAbilitative (mood)
expresses ability
"Are these shoes bigger than you can wear?"
- How wide is the river?
Tet elzge edrido vercdo?
tet el-zge edri-do verc-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate DEFDefinite
"the"-river wide-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient how_far-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Listen.
Tcia.
tcia
attention!
Assuming this means "listen (to this/me)" or "your attention please", use the interjection "tcia" (attention, hey, hark, listen, "about to send", etc). If "listen" is a command it might be more like "yethazg", hear-IMP.
- Sit here by me.
Dranzg tiak mimima.
dran-zg tiak mi(m)= ima
sit-IMPImperative (mood)
command here by=1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
- Keep this secret until tomorrow.
Deirzg tcïl mïnir vrïminimïdo.
deir-zg tcïl mïnir vrï-minim-(ï)do
guard-IMPImperative (mood)
command until tomorrow PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker-secret-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Come with us.
Futczg caizoms.
futc-zg cai(z)=oms
come-IMPImperative (mood)
command with=1PFirst person plural (person)
we (inclusive or exclusive)
- Bring your friends with you.
Dlitzg caizep myenzli epua.
dlit-zg cai(z)=ep myen-zli epua
bring-IMPImperative (mood)
command with=2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) friend-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- Be careful.
Tezg dirdo.
tezg dird-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.IMPImperative (mood)
command careful-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Have some tea.
Ïzgazg estïzado fau.
ïzga-zg estïzado fau
drink-IMPImperative (mood)
command tea-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient typical_amount_of
"fau", meaning "typical number/amount of tea" serves the same purpose as "some tea" in English; "jdo" (some) means something closer to "several".
- Pip and his dog were great friends.
Eduspremudya thirtcenvwiyi pïp dra gron ivwa.
ed-us-prem=udya thirtcenvwiyi pïp dra gron ivwa
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-CONTContinuative (tense/aspect)
continuous or durational action-befriend=RECPReciprocal (valency)
arguments act on each other wonderfully pip and dog 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive
- John and Elizabeth are brother and sister.
Uzïnudya djan dra elïzabeth.
uzïn=udya djan dra elïzabeth
be_a_sibling=RECPReciprocal (valency)
arguments act on each other john and elizabeth
- You and I will go together.
Ifuo vnüzi im dra ep.
if-fuo vnüzi im dra ep
FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-go together 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I and 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)
- They opened all the doors and windows.
Vednoth vlaxza dra tatcza jda.
v-ed-noth vlax-za dra tatc-za jda
3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-open door-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few and window-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few all
- He is small, but strong.
Fitet cmïldo tlo tsurdo.
fi-tet cmïl-do tlo tsur-do
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate small-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient but strong-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Is this tree an oak or a maple?
Tetwa vrïzgot rosdo kü zothdo?
tetwa vrï-zgot ros-do kü zoth-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity-tree oak-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient or maple-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Does the sky look blue or gray?
Tetwa ino vlido kü taucdo cwoedo?
tetwa ino vlid-do kü tauc-do cwoe-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions sky blue-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient or gray-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient which-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
The "which-ACC" (cwoedo) not required but clarifies that the question is about "blue or gray" rather than about "sky". Also, a verb like "tsiam" (seem/appear) could be used instead of the copula.
- Come with your father or mother.
Futczg caimraf kü nev epua.
futc-zg cai(z)=mraf kü nev epua
come-IMPImperative (mood)
command with=father or mother 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).GENGenitive (case)
possessive
Strictly, mraf and nev should be ACC, mrafdo and nevdo, but the context is clear and the suffixes can be dropped. Also note how the adposition is a clitic and thus attaches to the whole noun phrase.
- I am tired, but very happy.
Mitet jnüsto tlo jniceildo.
mi-tet jnüst-do tlo jni-ceil-do
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate tired-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient but EMINEminentive (degree)
an adjectival degree, eg. "very big"-happy-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- He played a tune on his wonderful flute.
Fedzet jgautc ujgite thirtcenvwi ivwa kai suïvdo.
f-ed-dzet jgautc ujgi-te thirtcenvwi ivwa kai suïv-do
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-play how flute-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc wonderful 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee.GENGenitive (case)
possessive RELRelative tune-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- Toward the end of August the days grow much shorter.
Vlïm nirza jnikolem mimemeken laminva.
vlïm nir-za jni-ko-lem mi(m)= emeken lamin-va
become day-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few EMINEminentive (degree)
an adjectival degree, eg. "very big"-COMPComparative (comparison)
e.g. 'better'-short near=end summer-GENGenitive (case)
possessive
No equivalent of "August" so "summer" used instead.
- A company of soldiers marched over the hill and across the meadow.
Edopald xalïx-vuvei gatijg dra gamimania.
edo-pald xalïx-vuvei ga(t)=ijg dra ga(t)=mimania
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-march soldier-squad go_over=hill and go_across=meadow
Adposition "gat" means "(go) across, over, past, beyond" and is appropriate for both "over hill" and "across meadow".
- The first part of the story is very interesting.
Tet drus tcïdava jnizviaramdo.
tet drus tcï-dava jni-zviaram-do
COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate story part_of-first EMINEminentive (degree)
an adjectival degree, eg. "very big"-interesting-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
- The crow dropped some pebbles into the pitcher and raised the water to the brim.
Edckit douwumulte dloax rauthniazli jdo dra edolo vaupolte iv lo vas.
ed-ckit dou(j)=wumul-te dloax rauthnia-zli jdo dra ed-olo vau(n)=pol-te iv lo vas
PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-drop go_into=pitcher-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc crow pebble-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient some and PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-rise go_up=edge-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act water
- The baby clapped her hands and laughed in glee.
- Stop your game and be quiet.
- The sound of the drums grew louder and louder.
- Do you like summer or winter better?
- That boy will have a wonderful trip.
- They popped corn, and then sat around the fire and ate it.
- They won the first two games, but lost the last one.
- Take this note, carry it to your mother; and wait for an answer.
- I awoke early, dressed hastily, and went down to breakfast.
- Aha! I have caught you!
- This string is too short!
- Oh, dear! the wind has blown my hat away!
- Alas! that news is sad indeed!
- Whew! that cold wind freezes my nose!
- Are you warm enough now?
- They heard the warning too late.
- We are a brave people, and love our country.
- All the children came except Mary.
- Jack seized a handful of pebbles and threw them into the lake.
- This cottage stood on a low hill, at some distance from the village.
- On a fine summer evening, the two old people were sitting outside the door of their cottage.
- Our bird's name is Jacko.
- The river knows the way to the sea.
- The boat sails away, like a bird on the wing.
- They looked cautiously about, but saw nothing.
- The little house had three rooms, a sitting room, a bedroom, and a tiny kitchen.
- We visited my uncle's village, the largest village in the world.
- We learn something new each day.
- The market begins five minutes earlier this week.
- Did you find the distance too great?
- Hurry, children.
- Madam, I will obey your command.
- Here under this tree they gave their guests a splendid feast.
- In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight.
- Tell the last part of that story again.
- Be quick or you will be too late.
- Will you go with us or wait here?
- She was always, shabby, often ragged, and on cold days very uncomfortable.
- Think first and then act.
- I stood, a little mite of a girl, upon a chair by the window, and watched the falling snowflakes.
- Show the guests these shells, my son, and tell them their strange history.
- Be satisfied with nothing but your best.
- We consider them our faithful friends.
- We will make this place our home.
- The squirrels make their nests warm and snug with soft moss and leaves.
- The little girl made the doll's dress herself.
- I hurt myself.
- She was talking to herself.
- He proved himself trustworthy.
We could see ourselves in the water.
Do it yourself.
I feel ashamed of myself.
Sit here by yourself.
The dress of the little princess was embroidered with roses, the national flower of the Country.
They wore red caps, the symbol of liberty.
With him as our protector, we fear no danger.
All her finery, lace, ribbons, and feathers, was packed away in a trunk.
Light he thought her, like a feather.
Every spring and fall our cousins pay us a long visit.
In our climate the grass remains green all winter.
The boy who brought the book has gone.
These are the flowers that you ordered.
I have lost the book that you gave me.
The fisherman who owned the boat now demanded payment.
Come when you are called.
I shall stay at home if it rains.
When he saw me, he stopped.
Do not laugh at me because I seem so absent minded.
I shall lend you the books that you need.
Come early next Monday if you can.
If you come early, wait in the hall.
I had a younger brother whose name was Antonio.
Gnomes are little men who live under the ground.
He is loved by everybody, because he has a gentle disposition.
Hold the horse while I run and get my cap.
I have found the ring I lost.
Play and I will sing.
That is the funniest story I ever heard.
She is taller than her brother.
They are no wiser than we.
Light travels faster than sound.
We have more time than they.
She has more friends than enemies.
He was very poor, and with his wife and five children lived in a little low cabin of logs and stones.
When the wind blew, the traveler wrapped his mantle more closely around him.
I am sure that we can go.
We went back to the place where we saw the roses.
"This tree is fifty feet high," said the gardener.
I think that this train leaves five minutes earlier today.
My opinion is that the governor will grant him a pardon.
Why he has left the city is a mystery.
The house stands where three roads meet.
He has far more money than brains.
Evidently that gate is never opened, for the long grass and the great hemlocks grow close against it.
I met a little cottage girl; she was eight years old, she said.
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