verbs in Thuldian
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short summary of the verbal system of thuldian
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 7 Sep 2023, 10:58.
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3. verbs in Thuldian
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Tuldian verbs are complicated, preserving much of the complicated nature of Proto-Germanic. They inflect for person, tense, number and mood. They are divided into 4 distinct regular conjugations, and 2 irregular ones.
The number of tenses that a verb conjugates to has increased from Proto-Germanic, with two additional tenses being developed, probably by influence from the surrounding Baltic languages, the past iterative and future tenses. Thus all in all, a verb can be either in the past, present, past iterative or future tense. The past iterative represents actions that occurred either habitually or repeatedly in the past, the equivalent of the imperfect tense in romance language, and thus is technically an aspect but is classed as a tense in most Halkujacia grammars.
There are also three moods: the indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods. The imperative only exists in the present tense, but the other moods are used in all tenses. The subjunctive is used to express wishes, desires, situations not known to be real by the speaker, in reported speech and also as a conditional mood.
Note: in all verbs, -в- is deleted before another consonant and leads to compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.
Conjugation 1
The first conjugation is notable for the absence of a thematic vowel in the infinitive, present or past. Despite its complexity, it is a highly regular verbal class, with very few instances of irregularity. Their stems undergo ablaut in order to form the past and participles, the full list of vowel shifts is listed below:
| infinitive | 2/3 person | past 1 | past 2 | participle |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ай- | -ѣй- | -í- | -і- | |
| -у́- | -ѵ́- | -ѡ- | -у- | |
| -і- | -і- | -а- | -у- | |
| -ѵ- | -ѵ- | -а́- | -о- | |
| -е- | -і- | -а- | -е́- | -у- |
| -а- | -ѣ- | -а́- | -а- | |
An example of a conjugation 1 verb is немт – to take
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | нему | наму | немшу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | німс | намс | немсі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | німт | намт | немс |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | немам | не́мум | немсім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | немаѳ | не́муѳ | немсіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | неман | не́мун | немсін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | немѡ | не́мѡ | немші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | неміс | не́міс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | немі | не́мі | немш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | немім | не́мім | немшім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | неміѳ | не́міѳ | немшіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | немін | не́мін | немшін |
| participles | ||||
| active | неманс | енуменс | немсінс | |
| passive | немамс | енуманс | немсімс | |
| adverbial | немант | нумус | немсѣнт | |
Conjugation 2
Unlike the highly regular Conjugation 1 which is almost always highly predictable in its ablaut patterns, conjugation 2 is far more irregular and unpredictable. However, it is still classed as a regular class of verbs, and it still has a predictable declension.
| infinitive | 2/3 person | past 1 | past 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| -í- | -í- | -í- | -ѣ- |
| -ѡ- | -ы́- | -ѡ- | -е- |
| -ы- | -і- | -ы- | -ѵ- |
| -о- | -ѣ- | -ѣ- | -е- |
| -е́- | -í- | -а́- | -е- |
| -а́- | -ѣ́- | -а́- | -а́- |
An example of a conjugation 2 verb is те́кт – to touch
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | те́ку | тѣ́ску | те́кшу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | тíкс | тѣ́скс | те́ксі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | тíкт | тѣ́скт | те́кс |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | те́кам | тескум | те́ксім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | те́каѳ | тескуѳ | те́ксіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | те́кан | тескун | те́ксін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | те́кѡ | тескѡ | те́кші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | те́ціс | тесціс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | те́ці | тесці | те́кш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | те́цім | тесцім | те́кшім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | те́ціѳ | тесціѳ | те́кшіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | те́цін | тесцін | те́кшін |
| participles | ||||
| active | те́канс | те́кенс | те́ксінс | |
| passive | те́камс | те́канс | те́ксімс | |
| adverbial | те́кант | те́кус | те́ксѣнт | |
Given that this class comes from the class 7 strong verbs of proto-germanic which formed their past stems through reduplication, the first consonant of the verb is reduplicated to after the stem vowel, although there are some alternations. For example, the verb above те́кт would be expected to have a past tense form тѣ́тку, but the т changes to a с before another consonant, giving тѣ́ску. The full list of alternations is as follows:
б - в
д - з
ж - г
с - р
т - с
ц - р
ѯ - р
ѱ - р
Furthermore, in consonant clusters involving л or р, the initial consonant isn't reduplicated, just the л or р. So бла́ст does not become блѣвту but блѣлту. Also, пк and пт change to ѯ, so пы́кт does not become пѵ́пку but пѵ́ѯу.
Conjugation 3
This conjugation is the most common, and can end in -а́т, -íт or -е́т. It’s characterised by deletion of the thematic vowel in the present tense. There is no ablaut in the stem in any tense, and the past tense is formed through suffixation rather than ablaut. An example of a conjugation 4 verb is луѯа́т – to tempt:
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | луѯу | луѯа́ду | луѯа́шу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | луѯас | луѯа́дс | луѯа́сі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | луѯа | луѯа́д | луѯа́с |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | луѯам | луѯа́дам | луѯа́сім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | луѯаѳ | луѯа́даѳ | луѯа́сіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | луѯан | луѯа́дан | луѯа́сін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | луѯѡ | луѯа́дѡ | луѯа́ші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | луѯіс | луѯа́діс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | луѯі | луѯа́ді | луѯа́ш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | луѯім | луѯа́дім | луѯа́шім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | луѯіѳ | луѯа́діѳ | луѯа́шіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | луѯін | луѯа́дін | луѯа́шін |
| participles | ||||
| active | луѯа́нс | елуѯа́нс | луѯа́сінс | |
| passive | луѯа́мс | елуѯа́дс | луѯа́сімс | |
| adverbial | луѯа́нт | луѯа́юс | луѯа́сѣнт | |
If a verb ending in -íт or -е́т has a stem ending in ц, ѕ, кь, гь, л, н, р, ш, ж, the declension is slightly different. The thematic vowel is deleted in the past tense, and the д assimilates to a т after voiceless consonants or л and р. An example of a conjugation 4 verb is двалíт – to live:
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | двалю | двалту | двалíшу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | двалас | двалтс | двалíсі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | двала | двалт | двалíс |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | двалѧм | двалтам | двалíсім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | двалѧѳ | двалтаѳ | двалíсіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | двалѧн | двалтан | двалíсін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | двалѫ | двалтѡ | двалíші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | двалис | двалтіс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | двали | двалті | двалíш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | двалим | двалтім | двалíшім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | двалиѳ | двалтіѳ | двалíшіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | двалин | двалтін | двалíшін |
| participles | ||||
| active | двалинс | едвалинс | двалíсінс | |
| passive | двалѧмс | едвалтс | двалíсімс | |
| adverbial | двалѧнт | двалюс | двалíсѣнт | |
Conjugation 4
This conjugation is characterised by total retention of the thematic vowel. It can end in -а́т, -е́т, -íт or -о́т in the infinitive. An example of a conjugation 5 verb is вѣно́т – to unite:
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | вѣно́ю | вѣно́ду | вѣно́шу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | вѣно́с | вѣно́дс | вѣно́сі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | вѣно́ | вѣно́д | вѣно́с |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | вѣно́м | вѣно́дам | вѣно́сім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | вѣно́ѳ | вѣно́даѳ | вѣно́сіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | вѣно́н | вѣно́дан | вѣно́сін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | вѣно́ѫ | вѣно́дѡ | вѣно́ші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | вѣно́йс | вѣно́діс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | вѣно́й | вѣно́ді | вѣно́ш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | вѣно́йм | вѣно́дім | вѣно́шім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | вѣно́йѳ | вѣно́діѳ | вѣно́шіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | вѣно́йн | вѣно́дін | вѣно́шін |
| participles | ||||
| active | вѣно́нс | евѣно́нс | вѣно́сінс | |
| passive | вѣно́мс | евѣно́дс | вѣно́сімс | |
| adverbial | вѣно́нт | вѣно́юс | вѣно́сѣнт | |
Conjugation 5
The first irregular conjugation, conjugation 5 verbs can also be called preterite present verbs, as they descend from old Germanic strong verbs whose past forms became their present forms. There are only 11 of them, of which 7 are auxiliary verbs. Their irregular stems are as follows:
| infinitive | meaning | present 1 | present 2 | past |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| акт | to fear | а́г- | а́г- | акту |
| віст | to know | вíт- | віт- | вікту |
| вѣкт | to owe | вѣш- | вѣг- | вѣшту |
| дозт | to dare | дар- | доз- | дозду |
| дукт | to be good | дог- | дуг- | дукту |
| лірт | to be able to | лíс- | лір- | лісту |
| макт | to be allowed/let | маг- | маг- | машту |
| ма́ст | to have to | ма́т- | ма́т- | ма́сту |
| мунт | to think | ман- | мун- | мунту |
| ѯот | to have to | ѯал- | ѯул- | ѯоду |
| ѳопт | to need | ѳа́п- | ѳоб- | ѳопту |
An example of a conjugation 5 verb is лірт – to be able to
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | лíсу | лісту | ліршу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | лíсс | лістс | лірсі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | лíст | лістт | лірс |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | лірум | лістам | лірсім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | ліруѳ | лістаѳ | лірсіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | лірун | лістан | лірсін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | лірѡ | лістѡ | лірші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | ліріс | лістіс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | лірі | лісті | лірш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | лірім | лістім | ліршім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | ліріѳ | лістіѳ | ліршіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | лірін | лістін | ліршін |
| participles | ||||
| active | ліранс | елістенс | лірсінс | |
| passive | лірамс | елістс | лірсімс | |
| adverbial | лірант | лістус | лірсѣнт | |
Conjugation 6
Conjugation 6 is made up entirely of irregular verbs. The most irregular verb is obviously бу́т – to be, but the verbs ѣт – to go, да́т – to do, шы́т – to see, вíт – to want, and ста́т – to be (see the section on copulas) are also highly irregular.
Бу́т
The main copula бу́т is the only verb in the language to have its own optative forms, which are used to express wishes. It is extremely irregular and suppletive, with the past and present forms derriving from two seperate verbs, and unlike most other verbs, its future conjugation is also irregular.
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | ѣм | васу | вѣшу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | іс | васс | вѣсі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | ір | васт | вѣс |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | есам | ве́рам | вѣсім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | есаѳ | ве́раѳ | вѣсіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | сінт | ве́ран | вѣсін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | бу́ | ве́рѡ | вѣші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | бу́с | ве́ріс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | бу́т | ве́рі | вѣш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | бу́м | ве́рім | вѣшім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | бу́ѳ | ве́ріѳ | вѣшіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | бу́н | ве́рін | вѣшін |
| participles | ||||
| active | весанс | еваренс | вѣсінс | |
| passive | бу́мс | еваранс | вѣсімс | |
| adverbial | весант | варус | вѣсѣнт | |
Ѣ́т
The verb Ѣ́т is also extremely irregular, with again suppletive present tense forms, but a regular future conjugation. Under influence from latvian, the proto-germanic past and present forms have swapped.
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | егю | га́ | ѣ́шу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | ейс | га́с | ѣ́сі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | ейт | га́т | ѣ́с |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | егѧм | га́м | ѣ́сім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | егѧѳ | га́ѳ | ѣ́сіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | егѧн | га́н | ѣ́сін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | егё | гѡ | ѣ́ші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | егис | ге́с | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | еги | ге́т | ѣ́ш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | егим | ге́м | ѣ́шім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | егиѳ | ге́ѳ | ѣ́шіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | егин | ге́н | ѣ́шін |
| participles | ||||
| active | ѣ́ванс | еге́нс | ѣ́сінс | |
| passive | ѣ́вамс | ега́нс | ѣ́сімс | |
| adverbial | весант | варус | ѣ́сѣнт | |
Да́т
The verb да́т, meaning “to do” is also highly irregular, but the other 3 irregular verbs are conjugated quite similarly to it.
| indicative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present | past | future | ||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | дой | діру | ду́шу |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | да́с | дірс | ду́сі |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | да́т | дірт | ду́с |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | да́м | дірум | ду́сім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | да́ѳ | діруѳ | ду́сіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | да́н | дірун | ду́сін |
| subjunctive | ||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | де́ | дірѡ | ду́ші |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | де́с | діріс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | де́т | дірі | ду́ш |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | де́м | дірім | ду́шім |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | де́ѳ | діріѳ | ду́шіѳ |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | де́н | дірін | ду́шін |
| participles | ||||
| active | да́нс | едіренс | ду́сінс | |
| passive | да́мс | едірадс | ду́сімс | |
| adverbial | да́нт | дірус | ду́сѣнт | |
The other irregular verbs are conjugated in a similar way, and their stems are as follows:
| infinitive | meaning | present | subjunctive | past | future | participle |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ста́т | to be | ста́- (стой) | сте́- | ста́ду | сту́- | ста́дс |
| вíт | to want | вí- | вíи- | вíду | вай- | вíдс |
| ѯы́т | to see | ѯы́- | ѯаві- | ѯо́ю | ѯо́- | ѯо́ѧнс |
The system of participles in Tuldian is highly complex, borrowing influences from the surrounding Baltic languages. There are adjectival and adverbial participles that play different roles, and adjectival participles have a split between active and passive participles. Passive participles are declined like declension 1 adjectives, whereas the active participles have their own special declension.
Active participles
The active participles are unique in that they have their own declension unlike other adjectives, which mirrors that of an 8th declension noun (without palatalisation) in the masculine, and a 5th declension noun in the feminine. There are 3 active participles, that always end in -нс. The present active participle is formed by taking the infinitive stem (apart from бу́т, which has an irregular present active participle), and adding -анс. The past active mostly by adding -енс to the past participle stem, and the future by adding -інс to the 3rd person future form of the verb. For example, the verb ѕебт – to give has the active participles ѕебанс, егубенс and ѕебсінс in the present, past and future respectively.
Besides their uses in compound tenses, the main function of the active participle is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to an ongoing, past or future action in which the noun is the agent: шле́пе́ндіс бе́рнас – šlēpēndis bērnas – sleeping children, егютанді мѵ́ѯ – eģutandi mÿx – spilt milk, спѵдíсінс ѫгуртс – spẏdīsins jogurts – yoghurt that will spoil soon.
The past active participle may also be used to describe an action performed by the subject before the main action: ежырѧнді, авіс ін дані лѫкт – ežyŗandi, avis in dani ļokt – having heard this, the sheep fled onto the plain.
An example of the active participle declension is the present active of the verb немт – to take, although the declension of all active participles in all tenses is the same:
| Masculine | Feminine | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
| NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | неманс | неманду | немандіс | неманді | неманді | немандас |
| ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | неманді | немандус | неманду | |||
| GENGenitive (case) possessive | немандіс | немандіс | немандѡ | немандас | немандіс | немандѡ |
| DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | немандí | немандаму | немандíм | немандaй | неманда́му | неманда́м |
| INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | неманде | неманды | ||||
| LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | неманде́ | немандíс | немандíс | неманда́ | немандíс | ме́нада́с |
Passive participles
The passive participles are declined exactly like normal 1st declension adjectives, and can thus take degrees of comparison. Besides their use in forming the passive, they can also be used as standard adjectives: тібрíма ражна – tibrīma ražna – a house that’s being built, вата́ еѕункенс – vatā edzunkans – water that’s been drank, ве́рс бласлы́вíсімс– vērs blaslȳvīsims– a man that will be blessed.
An example of the conjugation of a passive verb is the past passive conjugation of вісдѣлíт – to scatter, but all passive participles of all tenses are conjugated in a similar way – like regular 1st declension adjectives:
| masculine | feminine | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | SGSingular (number) one countable entity | DUDual (number) two | PLPlural (number) more than one/few | |
| NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | віседѣлтс | віседѣлту | віседѣлті | віседѣлта | віседѣлті | віседѣлтас |
| ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | віседѣлтан | віседѣлтус | віседѣлту | |||
| GENGenitive (case) possessive | віседѣлта | віседѣлтіс | віседѣлтѡ | віседѣлтрас | віседѣлтріс | віседѣлтрѡ |
| DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | віседѣлтам | віседѣлтаму | віседѣлтам | віседѣлтрай | віседѣлтра́му | віседѣлтемас |
| INSInstrumental (case) 'with', 'using' | віседѣлтан | віседѣлтем | віседѣлтры | віседѣлтеміс | ||
| LOCLocative (case) 'in, on, at' etc | віседѣлта́ | віседѣлтíс | віседѣлтос | віседѣлтра́ | віседѣлтрíс | віседѣлтеніс |
perfect tense
There are 3 perfect tenses in Tuldian: present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. These perfect tenses are only in the active voice not the passive voice, and thus use the active participle. For intransitive verbs, the participle is conjugated to agree with the subject, whereas for transitive verbs they agree with the object.
An example of a the perfect indicative conjugations is двалíт- volunteer:
| present perfect | past perfect | future perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ік | ѣм едвалинс | васу едвалинс | вешу едвалинс |
| ѳу | іс едвалинс | васс едвалинс | весі едвалинс |
| ис | ір едвалинс | васт едвалинс | вес едвалинс |
| ѧй | ір едвалинді | васт едвалинді | вес едвалинді |
| ме́с | есам едвалиндіс | варам едвалиндіс | весім едвалиндіс |
| ю́с | есаѳ едвалиндіс | вараѳ едвалиндіс | весіѳ едвалиндіс |
| и́с | сінт едвалиндіс | варан едвалиндіс | весін едвалиндіс |
| ю́гь | сінт едвалиндас | варан едвалиндас | весін едвалиндас |
The perfect usually corresponds to the English perfect tense. It has a number of different meanings, indicating that an action took place before another action, that an action has been completed (especially to influence its consequences), to emphasise duration of an action, or to indicate that an action was done at a non-specific point in a person’s life – the experiential perfect. For example:
- мíну разну ѣм еле́танду – mīnu raznu jėm elētandu – I’ve left my house
- инь ір ѣвун пірву еаканду – jiņ ir jėvun pirvu eakandu – he’s been afraid of it his whole life!
- Парíзей сінт епарандіс – Parīzei sint eparandis – They’ve travelled to Paris (in their life) !
- мет варам тікь ест етуѱа́ндіс , кай інѕамт – met varam tiķ est etupsāndis, kai indzamt – We’d just finished eating when he came in
passive voice
The passive voice is not expressed through the verbal morphology but is composed of the copula plus the conjugated passive participles. The present participle is used in the simple passive, whereas the past passive is used to represent the passive perfect. An example of the simple passive is the verb двалíт – to live:
| present perfect | past perfect | future perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ік | ѣм двалíмс | васу двалíмс | вешу двалíмс |
| ѳу | іс двалíмс | васс двалíмс | весі двалíмс |
| ис | ір двалíмс | васт двалíмс | вес двалíмс |
| ѧй | ір двалíма | васт двалíма | вес двалíма |
| ме́с | есам двалíмі | варам двалíмі | весім двалíмі |
| ю́с | есаѳ двалíмі | вараѳ двалíмі | весіѳ двалíмі |
| и́с | сінт двалíмі | варан двалíмі | весін двалíмі |
| ю́гь | сінт двалíмас | варан двалíмас | весін двалíмас |
An example of the passive perfect is the кѡпа́т – to buy:
| present perfect | past perfect | future perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ік | ѣм екѡпа́дс | васу екѡпа́дс | вешу екѡпа́дс |
| ѳу | іс екѡпа́дс | васс екѡпа́дс | весі екѡпа́дс |
| ис | ір екѡпа́дс | васт екѡпа́дс | вес екѡпа́дс |
| ѧй | ір екѡпа́да | васт екѡпа́да | вес екѡпа́да |
| ме́с | есам екѡпа́ді | варам екѡпа́ді | весім екѡпа́ді |
| ю́с | есаѳ екѡпа́ді | вараѳ екѡпа́ді | весіѳ екѡпа́ді |
| и́с | сінт екѡпа́ді | варан екѡпа́ді | весін екѡпа́ді |
| ю́гь | сінт екѡпа́дас | варан екѡпа́дас | весін екѡпа́дас |
Some examples of the passive include:
- падѡ ір еетанс – paduo ir eetans – the food has been eaten
- пю ѣвуні жемені варам віседѣлті – pju jėvuni žemeni varam visedėlti – we were scattered over the entire face of the earth
- Дайвы ѣм бласлыѧ́дс – Daivy jėm blaslyjāds – I’ve been blessed by God
The subjunctive has a varied role in Tuldian. In independent clauses, it can be used as to issue more polite commands, wishes, desires, doubts, expressing possibility, or as a conditional mood. In dependent clauses, it can express purpose, result, time, opinions, or in reported speech. There are a number of verbs, conjunctions and clause heads, especially those that express necessity or desire, that require a subjunctive to follow them.
desire
The subjunctive is used after a verb that expresses a desire, but also cam ne used by itself in such cases to express an optative. In cases with such a subordinate clause containing a subjunctive, the default word order changes from V2, and the verb in the subjunctive moves to the end of the sentence. For example:
- вíду, ка дурі лукис – vīdu, ka duri luķis – I wanted you to close the door
- вѣнпы́д ве́нѧм , ка ша́ ве́стуле ѳе вела пінщ, у ка вѣлі бу́ѳ – vėnpȳd vēņam, ka šā vēstule ţe vela pinšč, u ka vėli būţ – we hope only that this letter finds you well, and that you are all healthy
- ѕíві револу́цеѧ́ – dzīvi revolūceja – long live the revolution!
The verb "to be" actually has its own optative forms seperate from the subjunctive. These are as follows:
| ік | сѣ |
|---|---|
| ѳу | сѣс |
| ис | сѣт |
| ме́с | сѣм |
| ю́с | сѣѳ |
| и́с | сѣн |
hypotheticals
The subjunctive is often used after prepositions and conjunctions that introduce a hypothetical concept, especially the words – if, - unless, - despite, and – although. It can also be used where in Modern English the word ‘might’ would be used:
- ѣр атѕемі э́ѕе пур, небайд – jėr atdzemi jēdze pur, nebaid – If I arrive before you, don’t wait for me
- разну ѳíну нелістам піжт, новай же́ двалим, – raznu ţīnu nelistam pižt, novai žē dvaļim – even though we live here, we couldn’t find your house
- ют баѕíві – jut badzīvi! – I might yet survive!
Commands or suggestions
When commanding, suggesting or recommending something, or a polite version of the imperative: the subjunctive is used in, and in a similar way to the desiderative usage the main verb moves to the front of the sentence before a subordinate clause containing a subjunctive:
- гіѕінķiѳ кафѣс – gidzinkiţ kafės – would you please drink up your coffees
- анекра́пт ка ну туѱімс – anekrāpt ka nu tupsims – he ordered us to stop immediately!
- інсаѕу ка ѕемі шін вегу – insadzu ka dzemi šin vegu – I suggest that he comes this way!
Reported speech
When reporting something that a person doesn't know for certain or heard from another source, the subjunctive is used to convey the uncertainty:
- гаѳт ка е́бан ше́ре сте́н – gaţt ka ēban šēre stēn – she said that they were here yesterday
- жырту ка рѧ́ ма́ѧ́м риріни – žyrtu ka ŗā mājām ŗiriņi – I heard that he ran away from home
- телевíзеѧ́ ва́зт зінѫ́тс, ка шы́бан ѡст ѯулі – televīzejā vāzt ziņōts, ka šȳban uost ksuli – they reported on TV that it's supposed to rain tonight
The imperative is used to issue commands and for jussive statements. It is only used in the present tense. Its endings for all persons are as follows (note there are no first person singular forms for the infinitive):
| ѳу | - |
|---|---|
| ис | ле-(а) |
| ме́с | -(і)сым |
| ю́с | -(і)д |
| и́с | ле-(а)н |
The forms in brackets are used in declensions 1 and 2.
| C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ѳу | нім | дíв | луѯа́ | вѣно́ |
| ис | леніма | ледíва | лелуѯа́ | левѣно́ |
| ме́с | німісым | дíвісым | луѯа́сым | вѣно́сым |
| ю́с | німід | дíвід | луѯа́д | вѣно́д |
| и́с | леніман | ледíван | лелуѯа́н | левѣно́н |
Note: the forms of the imperative for the third person prefixed with ле- are literary, and in colloquial conversation its more common to use the second person infinitive with the particle "лай". So instead of saying лелуѯа́, they'd say лай луѯа́, and instead of saying лелуѯа́н, they'd say лай луѯа́д. Note also that class 1 and 2 verbs have umlaut in the imperative.
There are a small number of verbs that have irregular imperative forms:
| бу́т | ѣ́т | да́т | ста́т | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ѳу | вес | ей | ду́ | сту́ |
| ис | люса | ле́ѧ | леду́ | лесту́ |
| ме́с | весым | е́сым | ду́сым | сту́сым |
| ю́с | вест | е́д | ду́д | сту́д |
| и́с | люсан | ле́ѧн | леду́н | лесту́н |
Some examples of the imperative are:
- сна́відіс да ректы – snāvidis da rekty – turn right
- сапсым пільса́ту ри сіре у ту́рні кіс спіціс уѱінѫс ста́т – sapsym piļsātu ŗi sire u tūrni kis spicis upsiņos stāt – let us build for ourself a tower whose top reaches the heavens
- рией магу! – ŗiei magu! – go away boy!
- леетан ку́ку! – leetan kūku! – let them eat cake!
There are two distinct copulae use in Tuldian. The first, бу́т, is used in most circumstances, but a second, ста́т, is also used in certain circumstances. The main copula бу́т relates more to essence, whereas ста́т relates more to state. The copula ста́т is used for conditions, emotions and locations. Some examples of the differences include:
- ста́т лѧдс – stāt ļads – he's happy (currently)
- ір лѧдс – ir ļads – he's a happy person
- стой латвеѧ́ – stoi latvejā – I'm in Latvia
- стой латвеѧс – jėm latvejas – I'm from Latvia
- кева ста́с? – keva stās? – how are you?
- кева іс? – keva is? – what sort of a person are you?
When talking about the location of an object or place, the copula ста́т is always used, but when referencing an event, бу́т is used. For example:
- Рэ́жынке ста́т Латголас жіртене́ – Ŗēžynke stāt Latgolas žirtenē – Rēzekne is located in the heart of Latgalia
- мардус ір ца́ква́ – marţus ir cākvā – the wedding is in the Orthodox church
Like most indo-european languages, Thuldian has a complicated system of reflexive verbs that cover a number of functions. The main functions are as true reflexive (for example: Марыѧ ѳы́ктіс - Mary washes herself), and reciprocal verbs (for example: Пѫтрус у Марыѧ дрепенс - Mary and Peter are hitting each other).
However, there are a number of other uses of reflexive verbs, such as autocausative (ридрункемс - we got drunk), anticausative (дорс аѱіна́діс - the door opened), inherent (Пѫтрус клага́діс - Peter complained) and impersonal (ис ѕѣѳтіс ка - it's said that) meanings. In many traditional grammars of Thuldian, these are all grouped as mediopassive.
Reflexive verbs are charaterised with the infinitive ending -тіс.
Their declension is generally uniform, and is as follows:
| indicative | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1-2 | 3 | 4 | future | |||||
| present | past | present | past | present | past | |||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | гыкос | егыкос | вешос | ветíдос | клага́ѫс | клага́дос | клага́шос |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | гіксіс | егыксіс | ветасіс | ветíдсіс | клага́сіс | клага́дсіс | клага́сіс |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | гіктіс | егыктіс | ветатіс | ветíдіс | клага́тіс | клага́діс | |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | гыкемс | егокемс | вешамс | ветíдамс | клага́мс | клага́дамс | клага́сімс |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | гыкеѳс | егокеѳс | вешаѳс | ветíдаѳс | клага́ѳс | клага́даѳс | клага́сіѳс |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | гыкенс | егокенс | вешанс | ветíданс | клага́нс | клага́данс | клага́сінс |
| subjunctive | ||||||||
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | ік | гыкойс | егокойс | вешойс | ветíдойс | клага́ѫйс | клага́дойс | клага́шіс |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | ѳу | гыкісіс | егокісіс | вешісіс | ветíдісіс | клага́исіс | клага́дісіс | |
| 3SThird person singular (person) neither speaker nor addressee | ис | гыкітіс | егокітіс | вешітіс | ветíдітіс | клага́итіс | клага́дітіс | |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | ме́с | гыкімс | егокімс | вешімс | ветíдімс | клага́имс | клага́дімс | клага́шімс |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | ю́с | гыкіѳс | егокіѳс | вешіѳс | ветíдіѳс | клага́иѳс | клага́діѳс | клага́шіѳс |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them | и́с | гыкінс | егокінс | вешінс | ветíдінс | клага́инс | клага́дінс | клага́шінс |
Participles are identical to normal participles, except with a prefix сы- before them, which becomes
се́- for the active and passive past participles.
A relatively complex part of the grammar is the system of verbal aspects, which in Thuldian has been influenced by the system found in Baltic languages. There are two different aspects in Thuldian, the perfective and imperfective. The imperfective refers to the process of action, and the perfective aspect refers to the an action viewed as a simple whole. For example, те́кт (to touch) means "to be touching", or "to be in the process of touching", whereas анте́кт means "to touch", or "to have touched". For example, you would say ас те́ку вагю - I'm touching the wall, but ас анета́ку вагю - I touched the wall. If you used the imperfective form of the verb ас ета́ку вагю, the meaning would be slightly different - I was touching the wall.
All unprefixed verbs of state and movement are of the imperfective aspect. To make a perfective form Thuldian uses a complex system of verbal prefixes, similar to those found in Baltic and Slavic languages:
| prefix | english equivalent | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| ан- | on-, a- | location or starting something |
| ап- | off-, from- | movement away from something |
| ат- | at- | reaching or remaining somewhere |
| ба- | over- | movement over, or too much of something |
| бі- | be- | sense of around, throughout, or transitiviser |
| віс- | with- | movement against or up to something |
| ент- | contra- | moving against something or more commonly as a negative or reversal |
| *еп- | con- | gathering together |
| ін- | in- | movement into something |
| ме- | con- | action is done with someone |
| па- | fore- | action occurs before or in front of something |
| ри- | for- | movement off and away, or a negative |
| *ті- | to- | suggests destruction or separation |
| уж- | up- | movement up (unproductive), or general perfectiviser |
| унт- | under- | movement down, or interruption |
| уп- | up- | movement forward, ahead or upwards |
| ут- | out- | movement away or outwards, or signifying more of something |
| ѧ- | - | just forming perfective aspect |
| ѳуп- | through- | movement through something |
| ѵм- | circum- | movement around something |
*note: unproductive suffixes
However, not all prefixes are involved in the aspectual system, and some prefixes like бі-, ент- and ри- don't always form perfective verbs. ✎ Edit Article ✖ Delete Article
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