Grammar of Ehlimese
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Introduction
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 29 Dec 2022, 17:02.
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Ehlimese (qeYehlimê usatukê, [qejeɬimɛ usatukɛ]) was a classical language with ancient literary tradition. It served as the common language in the area of Ehlim until the arrival of the peoples of Ledankis. The endonym of the language comes from a Proto-Ehlimese word, which means the people from the little flower.
It was an experiment for me; I wanted a complex, deep language with diverse morphology and exotic features, while keeping it on the side of naturalism.
Phonetic reading
Semantic reading
Determinatives
Gender
Ehlimese has a gender system with masculine, feminine and neuter distinctions. It is a remain of the more elaborate Proto-Ehlimese animacy system, which distinguised human, animal, plant and inanimate nouns. Later human and animal nouns merged and reinterpreted as masculine, while the class of plants and inanimate objects turned into feminine and neuter.
This system is more or less transparent, since most masculine nouns begin with u- or w- while feminine words begin with i- or y- but there are traps. Yimpwa (smaller lizard) is masculine, while Ute means bird, which is feminine. Most nouns are neuter.
Cases
The case system of Ehlimese is dying. While Proto-Ehlimese used to have 10 cases, only four remained in Ehlimese and they are only used in certain words. Let's see the inflected forms of such a noun like usatukê (language).
Nominative: usatukê [usɑtukɛ]
Accusative: cusatukê [t͡ʃusɑtukɛ]
Dative: xusatukê [ʃusɑtukɛ]
Genitive: qüsatukê [qɨsɑtukɛ]
Cases are marked with prefixes and there are six different noun prefixing classes. Not inflected nouns use adpositions.
Mwe e kwall ge zaquhl itim.
[mʷe e kʷɑʎ ŋe t͡sɑquɬ itim]
boy.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male and water.FFeminine gender (gender)
feminine or female DEFDefinite
"the".NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter castle.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter
In the castle there's water and a boy.
Articles
| Case | MMasculine gender (gender) masculine or male | FFeminine gender (gender) feminine or female | NNeuter (gender) neutral or neuter |
|---|---|---|---|
| NOMNominative (case) TRANS subject, INTR argument | iê | inan | ge |
| ACCAccusative (case) TRANS direct object; patient | ciê | cinan | kige |
| DATDative (case) indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location | xiê | xinan | xtge |
| GENGenitive (case) possessive | ciê | cinan | qege |
Number
In Ehlimese there are singular and plural nouns. The basic unmarked form of the noun is singular, while the plural form depends on gender, count-ability and the origin of the word.
Proximity
Roco
[ɾot͡ʃo]
ro-co
day.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker
Today(This day)
Agreement
Ehlimese verbs use Polypersonal agreement. The prefixes of Proto-Ehlimese which denote the subject and the object are merged together into a single affix.
Yê'simama.
[jɛʔsimɑmɑ]
yê'-simama
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).OBJObject (argument)-love
I love you.
The following table shows the appropriate prefixes for each subject-object combinations.
| Subject\Object | 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I | 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) | 3MThird person masculine (person) he/they | 3FThird person feminine (person) she/they | 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) | 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) | 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them/N | Ø/N |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SFirst person singular (person) speaker, signer, etc.; I |
i- | yê'- | ü- | ei- | ik(')- | yêak(')- | eyik(')- | e- |
| 2SSecond person singular (person) addressee (you) |
qi- | q'eq'e- | qü- | cixa- | qik(')- | q'ecak(')- | qeyik(')- | q'e- |
| 3MThird person masculine (person) he/they |
ü-_-(ko) | qü-_-(ko) | ü-_-(ko) | wi- | ehhu-_-(ko) | cahhu-_-(ko) | iq'u-_-(ko) | u- |
| 3FThird person feminine (person) she/they |
ei-_-(ko) | ci-_-(ko) | wi-_-(ko) | ü- | ehhi-_-(ko) | cahhi-_-(ko) | iq'i-_-(ko) | i- |
| 1PFirst person plural (person) we (inclusive or exclusive) |
ehhe- | ek'e'- | ehhu- | ehhi- | ehhek(')- | ec'ak(')- | ehhyik(')- | ek(')- |
| 2PSecond person plural (person) addressee (plural) |
cahhe- | cak'e'- | cahhu- | cahhi- | cahhek(')- | cac'ak(')- | cahhyik(')- | *cak(')- |
| 3PThird person plural (person) neither speaker nor addressee, they/them/N |
iq'e- | yik'e'- | iq'u- | iq'i- | iq'ek(')- | yic'ak(')- | iq'yik(')- | *yik(')- |
In certain cases an additional suffix -ko is added to the root verb. It is a remnant of the Proto-Ehlimese animacy hierarchy. Proto-Ehlimese had four grammatical genders, which had to appear in the following order: human, animal, plant and inanimate. Breaking the hierarchy is ungrammatical, therefore an affix was used to denote, the subject and the object are switched.
Later the prefixes of the subject and the object merged together, and the gender system changed too.
Tense
Tense is marked with auxiliary verbs. Auxiliaries are evolved from old intransitive verbs. They inflected according to the subject of the sentence. Past tense is marked with hhako (past form of the Proto-Ehlimese copula), while future with og (to become).
Iq'ifawawitêko ihhako.
[iqʼiɸɑwɑwitɛko ixɑko]
iq'i-fawawitê-ko i-hhako
3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.3SFThird person singular feminine (person)
she-teach-3SMThird person singular masculine (person)
he.SUBSubject (argument) 3SFThird person singular feminine (person)
she-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
She taught them.
Üerhlko eog.
[ɨeɾɬko eoŋ]
ü-erhl-ko e-og
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).3SMThird person singular masculine (person)
he.OBJObject (argument)-fight-3SMThird person singular masculine (person)
he 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech
I will fight him.
Valency
Valency can be increased by using causative or applicative voice.
Tiyê'erhl.
[tijɛʔeɾɬ]
ti-yê'-erhl
APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument-1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).OBJObject (argument)-fight
I fight for you.
There are two applicatives: -t which is used to turn an intransitive verb to transitive: zwê (to speak) intransitive => zwêt (to talk about something) transitive, and x/ti- (depending on context) is used to turn into ditransitive tizwêt (to talk with someone about something).
Transitive
Subject - Object - verb root
Ditransitive
Subject - Direct object - verb root - (Indirect object)
Timaxê kigako q'ezwemisu, usiñ wog.
[timɑʃɛ kiŋɑko qʼet͡sʷemisu usiɲ woŋ]
ti-maxê ki-gako q'e-zwemi-su | u-siñ w-og
DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location-man ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient-spear 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you).SUBSubject (argument).3SNThird person singular non-human (person)
neither speaker nor addressee (it, cf. he/she).DODirect object (case/role)-give-SBJVSubjunctive mood (mood)
desired or possible events | 3SMThird person singular masculine (person)
he-hunt 3SMThird person singular masculine (person)
he-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech
If you give a man a spear, he will hunt.
Zero copula and nonverbial person agreement
Since there is no copula in Ehlimese, any word can behave as a verb itself.
Eyacawo.
[ejɑt͡ʃɑwo]
e-yacawo
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument)-scholar
I am a scholar.
Iñü ihhako.
[iɲɨ ixɑko]
i-ñü i-hhako
3SFThird person singular feminine (person)
she-happy 3SFThird person singular feminine (person)
she-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
She was happy.
Adjectives follow nouns. They are not inflected.
SUBSubject (argument).OBJObject (argument)-verb-voice SUBSubject (argument)-tense SUBSubject (argument)-NEGNegative (polarity)
not
Loc-noun (SUB)-loc.adp-gend{noun}
Maxilêmo igikê t'emo.
maxilê-mo i-gikê t'e-mo
child.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-COMComitative (case)
'together with' dog.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
Her children are wolves.
Proximal: close to speaker
Adverb: gwalco - here
Mesiodistal: distal to first and second persons ?
Adverb: gwal - there
Mesioproxal: proximal to second person
Adverb: gwalzinco - there
Distal: (amaz)
Adverb: gwalzin - there
Indefinite
Na'ê
[nɑʔɛ]
na-'ê
person-IDFUnknown code
Somebody.
Küm'ê
[kɨmʔɛ]
küm-'ê
village-IDFUnknown code
Some village.
Küm'ê ñu
[kɨmʔɛ ɲu]
küm-'ê ñu
village-IDFUnknown code PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
Some villages.
Kotlaya'ê
[kot͡ɬɑjɑʔɛ]
kotla-y-'ê
new-NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter-IDFUnknown code
Something new.
Comparative
Ge inan yatle wau.
ge inan y-atle w-a-u
3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-tall MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-ABLAblative (case)
away from-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male
She is taller than him.
Eisimama cutami q'eya.
ei-simama cutam-i q'e-a
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they.OBJObject (argument)-love good-ADVZAdverbialiser (syntax)
turns word into adverb 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-ABLAblative (case)
away from
I love her more than you (love her).
Relative comparison
Ge inan yatle umumi wau.
ge inan y-atle umumi w-a-u
3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-tall more MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-ABLAblative (case)
away from-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male
She is even taller than him.
Superlative
Inan aê yatle a.
Inan aê y-atle a
3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument all.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-tall ABLAblative (case)
away from.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter
She the tallest.
Equivalence
Ge inan yatle witimu.
ge inan y-atle w-itim-u
3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-tall MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male
She is as tall as him.
Et'iwipê ekrê ecalay hhawakima umumi.
e-t'iwipê e-krê e-cala-y hhawakima umumi
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).3NThird person neuter (person).OBJObject (argument)-wish_for 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-NEGNegative (polarity)
not 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I.SUBSubject (argument).3NThird person neuter (person).OBJObject (argument)-eat-NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter bread.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter more
I don't want to eat more bread.
Urrêon yikahhomi t'ezumalzê ewa yik'alay.
urrê-on yik-ahhomi t'ezuma-lzê ewa yik-cala-y
girl-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.FFeminine gender (gender)
feminine or female 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.SUBSubject (argument).3NThird person neuter (person).OBJObject (argument)-chant prayer-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter before.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter 3PThird person plural (person)
neither speaker nor addressee, they/them.SUBSubject (argument)-eat-NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter
The girls say prayers before they eat.
Iêco na, iê kimahhjjê iq'uxako e cutami eya.
[iɛt͡ʃo nɑ iɛ kimɑxççɛ iqʼuʃɑko e t͡ʃutɑmi ejɑ]
iê-co na | iê ki-mahhjjê iq'u-xa-ko e cutam-i e-a
3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they-PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker person.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male | 3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient-life.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter 3NThird person neuter (person).SUBSubject (argument).3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they.OBJObject (argument)-know-INVInverse marker (valency)
AKA action redirector 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I good-ADVZAdverbialiser (syntax)
turns word into adverb 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-ABLAblative (case)
away from
This is the person who understands life better than I do.
Mwe e kwall ge zaquhl itim.
[mʷe e kʷɑʎ ŋe t͡sɑquɬ itim]
mwe e kwall ge zaquhl itim
boy.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male and water.FFeminine gender (gender)
feminine or female DEFDefinite
"the".NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter castle.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter
In the castle there's water and a boy.
Yatle ihhako.
y-atle i-hhako
3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-tall 3FThird person feminine (person)
she/they-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
She was tall.
Iq'uapoko uhhako kige xuskin.
iq'u-apo-ko u-hhako ki-ge xuskin
3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they.3NThird person neuter (person)-close-INVInverse marker (valency)
AKA action redirector 3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient-DEFDefinite
"the".NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter door.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter
He closed the door.
Na eyenkwê kotlaya'ê iq'u/iq'iotlatko u/ihhako utlau roco.
[nɑ ejenkʷɛ kot͡ɬɑjɑʔɛ iqʼuot͡ɬɑtko uxɑko ut͡ɬɑu ɾot͡ʃo]
Na e-enkwê kotla-y-'ê iq'u/iq'i-otla-t-ko u/i-hhako u-tla-u ro-co
person.NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument 1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I-after new-NNeuter (gender)
neutral or neuter-IDFUnknown code 3NThird person neuter (person).SUBSubject (argument).3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they/3F.OBJObject (argument)-learn-APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument-INVInverse marker (valency)
AKA action redirector 3MThird person masculine (person)
he/they/3F-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-on-MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male day.MMasculine gender (gender)
masculine or male-PROXProximal (proximity)
close to speaker
The person after me learned something new today.
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