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short grammar of Iùdhais

This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 14 Mar 2024, 13:48.

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1. Alban Hebrew ? ?

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Menu 1. history 2. grammatical overview 3. orthography 4. nouns 5. case 6. declension tables 7. adjectives 8. pronouns 9. articles and determiners 10. numerals 11. prepositions The Iùdhais language is spoken by around 150,000 people in the Kingdom of Alba. It developed out of the Ænglisc language, although with significant vocabulary borrowing from Hebrew, Aramaic and Gaelic, as well as some norse borrowings.

[edit] [top]history

Seeking to build greater commercial connections and trade links with mainland Europe in the late 11th century, King Ædmund the wise of Ængland began inviting Jewish merchants into the country. A significant number began to arrive, fleeing persecution during the First Crusade in 1096, and building communities in Lunden, Wintencheaster, Oxneford and Norwich. With expulsion orders in France and Germany in the 12th and 13th century, the size of the community increased further, as the population was relatively tolerant in comparison to much of Western Europe. Thus, by the end of the 12th century, there was a population of around 70,000 Jews in England, spread throughout the country but concentrated in the larger cities. They quickly picked up the language, and thus began the early phases of a distinct Iùdhais language.

Initially, the population of Jews in Alba was relatively small, although there are records of at least one synagogue in Dùn Èideann by 1100 indicating there was at least some presence in the country. By 1150, the population began to increase with the Alban invasions of the north of Northymber, subsuming the not-insignificant population of Caisteal-nuadh, but the entire population of Alba was still less than 10,000 by the end of the 12th century.

However, this would change in the 13th century, with increasing antisemitic stereotypes entering Ængland from continental Europe. There were blood libel accusations in Norwich and Oxneford, leading to pogroms and significant violence. This prompted further migration of Jews out of Ængland northwards. The situation worsened for the Jews of England in 1239, with the acession of King Ulfgar the pious to the throne. Under the influence of his Austrian Wife, they began to promote and propagate these stereotypes, with the famous disputation of Wintencheaster in 1245 and burnings of the Talmud in 1250. This culminated in the expulsion order of 1257, whereby all the Jews of England were ordered to leave, with three months for the sale of their personal property. Immovable property, such as houses, fields, and barns were confiscated and given to the clergy. The vast majority of this population ended up moving to Alba, where they joined the established Jewish communities in the region, bringing their Anglo-Jewish culture and language with them.

With this movement, the Iùdhais language began to diverge from Ænglisc due to its physical separation from other Ænglisc speakers in the Gaelic-speaking Alba. Thus, the Iùdhais language has significant influence from both Gaelic, Norse, German, French, Hebrew and Aramaic, making the origins and lexical makeup of the language extremely complicated.

The first recorded written records of the language come from the mid 12th century, from a note in a siddur in Eorfic: גֹדַּא בְּרָכֿוֹת הֶים זִאן דָֿתֹֿא כֵּפְּתְֿ הָלִיגֿ תֹֿנֶא שַׁבָּתֿ-תֲּיגֿ (gōda brāhōþ heom zīen ðāþa cēpþ hāliġ þone sċabbāþ-tæiġ) - "glad blessings be upon those that keep holy the Sabbath day". This written record is suggestive of relatively little divergence between Ænglisc and Iùdhais at this point in time, although some phonological changes seem to have occured, with voicing in "zīen" and devoicing in "tæiġ". Another thing to note is an extremely underdeveloped orthography, with Nikkudot used to indicate vowels rather than mater lectiones as in Modern Iùdhais. A more alphabetical system seems to have begun to be developped in later centuries, although there was significant variation in representing sounds such as /t̪ʰ/ and /kʰ/ up to the late 19th century.

[edit] [top]grammatical overview

Iùdhais shares many typological similarities with other Germanic languages, although with some distinct features of its own:
- V2 word order, with defaut SVO as a basic order
- 4 distinct grammatical cases
- 2-3 grammatical genders, with the neuter merging with the masculine in some dialects
- 2-3 grammatical numbers, with the exact status of the dual number as its own distinct number being disputable, although this will be discussed further in the section on number
- definite articles only
- uniquely amongst germanic languages, and a feature borrowed from Gaelic, the language has conjugated prepositions
- prepositional constructions for possession
- strong and weak verbal paradigm

[edit] [top]orthography

The Iùdhais language is written in a modified version of the Hebrew alephbet. It is largely written alphabetically, but words of hebrew origin are written in their original form, meaning the vowels are not written out (although certain non-standard orthographical practices avoid this, and spell all words out alphabetically). The pronunciation of these words must thus be memorised, making the orthography relatively complex. The letters of the alphabet and their pronunciations are as follows:

א	אָ	אַ	אֹ	אֹע	ב
שטילער אַלף	קמץ אַלף	פּתּח אַלף	הוֹלם אַלף	הוֹלם אַלף עין	ביתֿ
ˈʃt̪ʰiləɾ ˈaləf	kʰaːməs̪ ˈaləf	ˈpʰaʰt̪əx ˈaləf	ˈhoːləm ˈaləf	ˈhoːləm ˈaləf ain	peːs̪
/∅/	/aː/	/a/	/o/ /ɔ/	/ɯː/	/b/
בֿ	ג	גֿ	ד	דֿ	ה
בֿיתֿ	גימל	גֿימל	דלתֿ	דֿלתֿ	הא
veːs̪	ˈkiml̩	ˈɣiml̩	ˈt̪aləs̪	ˈɣaləs̪	heː
/v/	/k/	/ɣ/	/t̪/	/ɣ/	/h/
ו	ו	וֹ	וּ	וֹא	וי
האַרטע ואו‎	ואו‎	הוֹלם ואו	שׁוּרוק	הוֹלם ואו אַלף	ואו יודֿ
ˈhaɾt̪ʰə wɔː‎	wɔː‎	ˈhoːləm wɔː	ˈʃuːɾəʰk	ˈhoːləm wɔː ˈaləf	wɔː‎ juɣ
/w/‎	/u/	/oː/	/uː/	/ɔː/	/ɯ/
וֹי	װ	װֿ	ז	ח	ט
הוֹלם ואו יודֿ	צװעין ואוים	צװעין ואוים רפֿי	זין	חיתֿ	טיתֿ
ˈhoːləm wɔː juɣ	s̪wɛːn ˈwɔːwəm	s̪wɛːn ˈwɔːwəm ɾaːfə	zajən	xeːs̪	t̪ʰeːs̪
/ɤ/	w	/ʍ/	/z/	/x/	/t̪ʰ/
י	י	יּ	ײ	ײַ	כּ
האַרטע יודֿ	יודֿ	מפּיק יודֿ	צװאָ יודֿותֿ	פּתּח צװאָ יודֿותֿ	כּף
ˈhaɾt̪ʰə juɣ	juɣ	ˈmaʰpəʰk juɣ	s̪waː ˈjuɣəs̪	ˈpʰaʰt̪əx s̪waː ˈjuɣəs̪	kʰaf
/j/	/i/ /ɪ/	/iː/	/ɛ/	/eː/	/kʰ/
כֿ	ך	ל	לּ	מ	ם
xaf	לאַנגע כֿף	למדֿ	האַרטע למדֿ	מם	יעלאֹכֿן מם
xaf	ˈlaŋkə xaf	ˈlamu	ˈhaɾt̪ʰə ˈlamu	meim	jəˈlɔxn̩ meim
/x/	/x/	/l/ /l̪/	/l̪/	/m/	/m/
נ	ן	נּ	ןּ	ס	ע
נון	לאַנגע נון	האַרטע נון	האַרטע לאַנגע נון	סמך	שטילע עין
nun	ˈlaŋkə nun	ˈhaɾt̪ʰə nun	ˈhaɾt̪ʰə ˈlaŋkə nun	ˈs̪aməx	ˈʃt̪ʰiləɾ ain
/n/	/n/	/n̪ˠ/	/n̪ˠ/	/s̪/	/∅/
ע	עו	עי	פּ	פֿ	ף
עין	עין ואו‎	עין יודֿ	פּא	פֿא	לאַנגע פֿא
ain	ain wɔː‎‎	ain juɣ‎	pʰeː	feː	ˈlaŋkə feː
/e/ /ə/	/ia/‎‎	/ɛː/	/pʰ/	/f/	/f/
צ	ץ	ק	ר	רּ	ש
צדי	לאַנגע צדי	קוף	ריש	האַרטע ריש	שין
ˈs̪at̪ə	ˈlaŋkə ˈs̪at̪ə	kʰuf	ɾeːʃ	ˈhaɾt̪ʰə ɾeːʃ	ʃin
/s̪/	/s̪/	/kʰ/	/ɾ/	/rˠ/	/ʃ/
שׂ	תּ	תֿ
שׂין	תּו	תֿו
s̪in	t̪ʰɔː	s̪ɔː
/s̪/	/t̪ʰ/	/s̪/

Note: the letters in cyan are the vowel sounds, the blue are only found in Hebrew loanwords and the red are the final forms of the green letters.

Some orthographic notes are the fact that the unpointed א is used before the vowels י,יּ, ײ, ײַ, ו, וֹ and וּ in native words, but other than that it is largely found in Hebrew loanwords. As mentioned above, certain letters are final letters, an orphographic practice from Hebrew, meaning that the letters in green change form into the letters in red at the end of the word.

[edit] [top]nouns

gender and number
Most dialects of Iùdhais preserve the three gender system of Ænglisc, with nouns either being masculine, feminine or neuter. However, in some dialects, such as those in Inbhir Nis, Asainn and Steòrnabhagh, the neuter gender merges with the masculine.

The gender of a noun is important in determining its inflectional paradigm and pluralisation. Adjectives, determiners, articles and pronouns all agree in gender with nouns. Thus for example:
ער מאַןּ - /eɾ maun̪ˠ/ - the man
עו פֿרוֹ - /ja fɾoː/ - the woman
אַס קילד - /as̪ kʰil̪t̪/ - the child

Nouns borrowed from Hebrew and Aramaic, which are languages with only a masculine and feminine gender, largely follow the gender that they had in their language of origin. Because of the nature of the grammars of these languages, gender assignment of these nouns is largely predictable. Feminine nouns of hebrew origin mostly ending in ה- or ותֿ-, and masculine nouns largely end in a consonant, although there are many exceptions to this. However, there are a few nouns of Hebrew origin that take the neuter gender, such as נחתֿ - /ˈnaxəs̪/ -joy, מוֹח - /ˈmoːx/ - brain, and מזוּמן - /məˈzuːmən/ - cash are neuter, largely due to their corresponding native words being neuter.

There are three grammatical numbers in Iùdhais, although the dual number is only used after the numeral צװעין (two) in its inflected form, and is always identical to the dative singular. Thus, its status as a distinct grammatical number is highly debatable.

The dual surfaces as follows:
צװעין װאוירמע - /s̪wɛːn ˈwɯɾɯmə/ - two worms
צװאָ פֿלאַשע - /s̪waː ˈflaʃə/ - two bottles
צוֹא באָנע - /s̪ɔ: ˈpaːnə/ - two bones

Whilst with the numeral דרײ (three), the full plural forms are used:
דרײַ װאוירמס - /t̪ɾeː ˈwɯɾɯms/ - three worms
דרעו פֿלעשער - /t̪ɾia ˈfleʃəɾ/ - three bottles
דרעו בײנער - /t̪ɾia ˈpɛnəɾ/ - three bones

There are a number of different plural endings, and the precise plural ending used depends on the noun class. Native masculine nouns take either ן- or ס- in the nominative/accusative plural. Feminine nouns take ן- or ער-. Neuter nouns take ער ,-ע- or ן-. Nouns of Hebrew origin take the hebrew endings, ותֿ- or ים-. The exact nominal paradigms will be discussed further below.

[edit] [top]case

Nouns and pronouns in Gaelic have four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative case. Nouns can be classified into a number of major declension classes, with a small number of nouns falling into minor patterns or irregular paradigms. Case forms are shown by suffixation to the noun.

nominative
The nominative case marks the subject of a verb. When the verb is active, the nominative is the person or thing doing the action (agent); when the verb is passive, the nominative is the person or thing receiving the action. In a copulative sentence, the nominative is used on both sides of the copula. For example:
- מײַ הוןּ פּלעידֿ עסן האַנּען- /meː huːn̪ˠ ˈpʰlɛːɣ es̪n̩ ˈhan̪ˠən/ - my dog eats chicken
- אַ זקנותֿ שװעבֿעדֿ - /aː ˈzkʰeːnəs̪ ˈʃwevu/ - the old women are sleeping
- היּ איז יעסקילד - /hiː iz jes̪ kʰil̪t̪/ - he is just a child

accusative
The accusative case marks the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used alongside a few other prepositions, as well as in expressions related to time. For example: אינטן דעס הײטנס, קױם איך אֹם סקוֹלע - ɪntn̩ /dəs heːtn̩s, koum ɪx om skɔːlə/ - This afternoon, I arrived at school.
- נע װאוירם זעו איך - /ne wɯɾɯm zia ix/ - I see the worm
- פֿרוֹן קנאֹע איך פֿאֹרן - /fɾoːn krɯː ix fɔːɾn̩/ - I know a woman for that
- מײַ הוןּ פּלעידֿ עסן האַנּען - /meː huːn̪ˠ ˈpʰlɛːɣ es̪n̩ ˈhan̪ˠən/ - my dog eats chicken

genitive
The genitive case represents a relation between two nouns, normally some sort of possession. It can also be used with a number of prepositions. It can also be used partitively, as in זום אָרע פֿישע – some of the fish. Some examples of the genitive include:
- מײַסט מאַנּע רּאַדֿ װאֹלטן פֿול װֿיסקיעבֿאָן דאֹן פּעליערע װעסן - /ˈmeːs̪t ˈman̪ˠə ˈrˠɤː ˈwɔl̪t̪ʰn̩ ˈful ˈʍis̪kʰiəvaːn ˈt̪ɔn ˈpʰeliəɾə ˈwes̪n̩/ - most men would rather be full of whiskey than bullets
- יצחק'ס מאָהיר ליבֿט אים אינבֿערנישע - ˈjis̪xaʰks̪ ˈmaːhɪɾ ˈlivt ˈim ˈinivəɾnɪʃə - Isaac's mother lives in Invernes
- פֿיונּע און אֹדֿרע מחלותֿ אַס אײַגנס - ˈfiun̪ˠə ˈun ˈoːɾə ˈmaxaləs̪ ˈas̪ ˈeːkn̩s̪ - cataracts, and other diseases of the eye

dative
The dative case has a number of roles, covering both the indirect object, and for many prepositions, especially in the plural. It can also be used for the purpose, benefit, or manner of an action, or to denote possession. Some examples of the Dative include:
- אֹורע װײרּט האַדֿ אוֹסטרינקן אַן מײרעם ראֹעטעם - ˈɔuɾə ˈwaːrˠt ˈhɤː oːs̪ˈt̪ʰɾiŋkʰn̩ ˈan ˈmɛɾəm ˈɾɯːʰt̪əm - our world has drowned in seas of red
- גיבֿ אַם קינדע עו בוּך - ˈkiv ˈaum ˈkʰin̪t̪ə ˈja ˈpuːx - give the book to the child
- בֿיּ פֿאֹר מײַ בריּדער - ˈviː ˈfɔɾ ˈmeː ˈpɾiːt̪əɾ - It's for my brother

[edit] [top]declension tables

The nouns are usually refered to by their genitive and plural endings, although some grammaticians refer to the n-n nouns as weak nouns and the rest as strong nouns.

s-s nouns
The nouns of this type make up all native masculine nouns not ending in ע-, thus a large percentage of masculine nouns, unless they are borrowed from Hebrew. A lot of borrowed masculine nouns from Gaelic join this noun class.

	SG	PL
NOM	הוןּ	הונּס
ACC	הוןּ	הונּס
GEN	הונּס	הונּע
DAT	הונּע	הונּעם

	SG	PL
NOM	huːn̪ˠ	huːn̪ˠs̪
ACC	huːn̪ˠ	huːn̪ˠs̪
GEN	huːn̪ˠs̪	hun̪ˠə
DAT	hun̪ˠə	hun̪ˠəm

e-er nouns
The nouns of this class make up the majority of feminine nouns. It makes up all feminine nouns ending in a consonant, although some nouns of this class end in ע-. Five masculine nouns, זונע (son) and האַנט (hand), מאַגע (boy), װידע (wood) and עפּל (apple) also belong to this class, but they are the only ones.

			ע-
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	מיכֿט	מיכֿטער	אוילטע	אוילטן
ACC	מיכֿטע	מיכֿטער		אוילטן
GEN		מיכֿטרע		אוילטענע
DAT		מיכֿטרעם		אוילטעם

			-ə
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	mixt	ˈmixt̪ʰə	ˈɯl̪t̪ʰə	ˈɯl̪t̪ʰn̩
ACC	ˈmixt̪ʰə	ˈmixt̪ʰə		ˈɯl̪t̪ʰn̩
GEN		ˈmixt̪ɾə		ˈɯl̪t̪ʰənə
DAT		ˈmixt̪əm		ˈɯl̪t̪ʰəm

s-e(r) nouns
Almost all neuter nouns belong to this class. They either take ע- or ער- in the plural. However, in dialects where there is no neuter gender, nouns of this class join the s-s declension.

	ע-		ער-
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	שיפּ	שיפּע	קלאָד	קלאָדער
ACC	שיפּ		קלאָד	קלאָדער
GEN	שיפּס		קלאָדס	קלאָדער
DAT	שיפּע	שיפּעם	קלאָדע	קלאָדעםר

	-ə		-əɾ
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	ʃiʰp	ˈʃiʰpə	ˈkʰla:t̪	ˈkʰla:t̪əɾ
ACC	ʃiʰp		ˈkʰla:t̪	ˈkʰla:t̪əɾ
GEN	ʃiʰps̪		ˈkʰla:t̪s̪	ˈkʰla:t̪ɾə
DAT	ˈʃiʰpə	ˈʃiʰpəm	ˈkʰla:t̪ə	ˈkʰla:t̪ɾəm

n(s)-n nouns
There are n-stem nouns in all 3 genders, although almost all of them are masculine or feminine, with only a few neuter n-stems. They usually end in ע-.

	masculine		feminine		neuter
	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	שטערּע	שטערּן	אײַגע	אײַגן	סײַלע	סײַלן
ACC	שטערּן	שטערּן	אײַגע	אײַגן	סײַלן	סײַלן
GEN	שטערּנס	שטערּענע	אײַגנס	אײַגענע		סײַלענע
DAT	שטערּן	שטערּעם	אײַגן	אײַגעם		סײַלעם

	masculine		feminine		neuter
	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠə	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠn̩	ˈeːkə	ˈeːkn̩	ˈs̪eːlə	ˈs̪eːln̩
ACC	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠn̩	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠn̩	ˈeːkə	ˈeːkn̩	ˈs̪eːln̩	ˈs̪eːln̩
GEN	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠn̩s̪	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠənə	ˈeːkn̩s̪	ˈeːkənə		ˈs̪eːlənə
DAT	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠn̩	ˈʃt̪ʰɤrˠəm	ˈeːkn̩	ˈeːkəm		ˈs̪eːləm

stem-changing nouns
A small subclass of both native and borrowed nouns work slightly differently, and form the genitive/dative singular and plural through changes in the stem vowel. Their declension is slightly different in the masculine and feminine.

	masculine		feminine
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	מוֹאז	מײַז	גוּז	גיּז
ACC	מוֹאז	מײַז	גוּז	גיּז
GEN	מוֹאזעס	מוֹאזע	גיּז	גוּזע
DAT	מײַז	מוֹאזעם	גיּז	גוּזעם

	masculine		feminine
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	mɔːz	meːz	kuːz	kiːz
ACC	mɔːz	meːz	kuːz	kiːz
GEN	ˈmɔːzəs̪	ˈmɔːzə	kiːz	ˈkuːzə
DAT	meːz	ˈmɔːzəm	kiːz	ˈguːzəm

s-im/s-os nouns
Nouns of this class are usually borrowed from Hebrew. They work slightly differently to native nouns, since the stress patterns change in the dative and plural quite often. Most masculine and neuter nouns take a plural ending in ים-, but some, especially nouns ending in -on, take the plural -os, like feminine nouns borrowed from Hebrew.

	ים-		ותֿ-
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	חלק	חלקים	רצון	רצוֹנותֿ
ACC	חלק	חלקים	רצון	רצוֹנותֿ
GEN	חלק'ס	חלקי	רצונ'ס	רצוֹנו
DAT	חלק'ע	חלקים	רצוֹנ'ע	רצוֹנום

	-əm		-əs̪
	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	ˈxeːləʰk	xaˈlaːʰkəm	ˈɾaːs̪ən	ɾəˈs̪oːnəs̪
ACC	ˈxeːləʰk	xaˈlaːʰkəm	ˈɾaːs̪ən	ɾəˈs̪oːnəs̪
GEN	ˈxeːləʰks̪	xaˈlaːʰkə	ˈɾaːs̪ən̪s̪	ɾəˈs̪o:nə
DAT	xelkʰə	xaˈlaːʰkəm	ɾəˈs̪oːnə	ɾəˈs̪oːnəm

e-os/s-os nouns
Feminine nouns borrowed from Hebrew are slightly more complicated. There are three groupings of feminine nouns: those that end in a consonant, those that end in ותֿ- and those that end in ה-. The declensions of the nouns differ slightly.

			ה-		ותֿ-
	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	רוּח	רוּחותֿ	עבֿוֹדֿה	עבֿוֹדֿותֿ	מלכֿותֿ	מלכֿויותֿ
ACC	רוּח'ע	רוּחותֿ	עבֿוֹדֿה	עבֿוֹדֿותֿ		מלכֿויותֿ
GEN		רוּחו	עבֿוֹדֿתֿ	עבֿוֹדֿו		מלכֿויו
DAT		רוּחום	עבֿוֹדֿה	עבֿוֹדֿום		מלכֿויום

			-ə		-əs̪
	SG	PL	SG	PL	SG	PL
NOM	ˈɾuːx	ˈɾuːxəs̪	aˈvoːɣə	aˈvoːɣəs̪	ˈˈmalaxəs̪	malaˈxuːjəs̪
ACC	ˈɾuːxə	ˈɾuːxəs̪	aˈvoːɣə	aˈvoːɣəs̪		malaˈxuːjəs̪
GEN		ˈɾuːxə	aˈvoːɣəs̪	aˈvoːɣə		malaˈxuːjə
DAT		ˈɾuːxəm	aˈvoːɣə	aˈvoːɣəm		malaˈxuːjəm

[edit] [top]adjectives

Adjectives are a largely regular class, with very little variability besides some stem changes in the superlative. There are a few different adjectival suffixes: איש, -פֿול, -איש, -ענט, -י-, and על-. Adjectives decline for case and gender, and there is only one regular declension used for all adjectives.

The adjectives are declined into two different declensions, definite and indefinite. The definite adjectives are used in all definite adjectival situations, which include nouns both following definite articles, proper names, vocative statements, comparative adjectives, possessive pronouns and determiners.

indefinite declension

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	הײַכֿער	הײַכֿס	הײַכֿע
ACC	הײַכֿן	הײַכֿס	הײַכֿע
GEN	הײַכֿס		הײַכֿער	הײַכֿער
DAT	הײַכֿעם		הײַכֿער	הײַכֿעם

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	ˈheːxəɾ	ˈheːxs̪	ˈheːxə
ACC	ˈheːxn̩	ˈheːxs̪	ˈheːxə
GEN	ˈheːxs̪		ˈheːxəɾ	ˈheːxəɾ
DAT	ˈheːxəm		ˈheːxəɾ	ˈheːxəm

definite declension

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	הײַכֿע	הײַכֿע	הײַכֿע	הײַכֿן
ACC	הײַכֿן	הײַכֿע	הײַכֿן	הײַכֿן
GEN	הײַכֿנס			הײַכֿענע
DAT	הײַכֿן			הײַכֿעם

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	ˈheːxə	ˈheːxə	ˈheːxə	ˈheːxn̩
ACC	ˈheːxn̩	ˈheːxə	ˈheːxn̩	ˈheːxn̩
GEN	ˈheːxn̩s̪			ˈheːxənə
DAT	ˈheːxn̩			ˈheːxəm

comparatives and superlatives
Comparatives and superlative adjectives are sometimes irregular in stem vowel alterations. Some of the following demonstrate this:

verb	meaning	comparative	superlative
הײַך	high	העיכֿער	העכֿסט
שװעך	weak	שװיכֿער	שװעכֿסט
לאַנג	long	לענגער	לענגסט
יונג	young	יענגער	יענגסט
אײלט	old	אוילטער	אוילטסט
סטראַנג	strong	סטרענגער	סטרענגסט
שאֹרט	short	שירטער	שירטסט
פֿעיער	beautiful	פֿיּרער	פֿיערסט

And yet other verbst have suppletive forms, whereby the entire stem changes in the comparative and superlative:

verb	meaning	comparative	superlative
גוּט	good	בעצער	בעסט
איּבֿל	bad	װאוירסע	װאוירסט
מיקל	big	מאָרע	מעיסט
ליּטל	little	לעסע	ליּסט
סמאַל	small	מיניער	מיניעסט
פֿערּ	far	פֿורדער	פֿורסט

Comparative adjectives are always declined definitely, and for the most part are formed by adding ער- to the stem. Comparitives that end in ע-, like מאָרע or לעסע are itentical to general definite adjectives. But the general regular declension is as follows:

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	װײַטער	װײַטער	װײַטער	װײַטערן
ACC	װײַטערן	װײַטער	װײַטערן	װײַטערן
GEN	װײַטערנס			װײַטערנע
DAT	װײַטערן			װײַטערם

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	ˈweːʰt̪əɾ	ˈweːʰt̪əɾ	ˈweːʰt̪əɾ	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩
ACC	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩	ˈweːʰt̪əɾ	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩
GEN	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩s			ˈweːʰt̪əɾnə
DAT	ˈweːʰt̪əɾn̩			ˈweːʰt̪əɾəm

Superlative adjectives are declined identically to average definite and indefinite adjectives, just with the ending סט- at the end of the adjectival stem, thus the chart won't be repeated here.

[edit] [top]pronouns

personal pronouns
Iùdhais has three numbers in the personal pronouns, with dual first and second person pronouns. However, these dual pronouns are optional, and frequently replaced with the plural in many dialects. Furthermore, there is a T-V distinction in the second person, with the plural second person pronoun also used as a polite form. Pronouns are declined by case additionally, with gender distinctions in the third person singular pronouns

	first person			second person			third person
	SG	DU	PL	SG	DU	PL	M	N	F	PL
NOM	איך	װיץ	װיּ	דו	עץ	יע	היּ	העס	העו	העי
ACC	מיך	אונק	אוס	דיך	ענק	יוּ	הין	העס	העו	העי
DAT	מיּ	אונק	אוס	דיּ	ענק	יוּ	הים		היר	העם
GEN	מײַן	אונקער	אֹור	דײַן	ענקער	יעװער	היז		היר	הער

	first person			second person			third person
	SG	DU	PL	SG	DU	PL	M	N	F	PL
NOM	ix	wis̪	wiː	t̪u	es̪	je	hiː	hes̪	hia	hɛː
ACC	mix	uŋ	us̪	t̪ix	eŋ	juː	hin	hes̪	hia	hɛː
DAT	miː	uŋ	us̪	t̪iː	eŋ	juː	him		hiɾ	heim
GEN	meːn	ˈuŋkʰəɾ	ɔuɾ	t̪eːn	ˈeŋkʰəɾ	ˈjawəɾ	hiz		hiɾ	heɾ

interrogative pronouns
There are also two interrogative pronouns. They are not usually used as relative clause markers, and the strategies by which relative clauses work will be discussed later. The interrogative pronouns are governed by natural genders rather than grammatical genders:

	who	what
NOM	װֿאָ	װֿאֹס
ACC	װֿאֹן	װֿאֹס
GEN	װֿעס
DAT	װֿעם

[edit] [top]articles and determiners

Iùdhais has no indefinite articles, and it hasn't developed one unlike most germanic languges probably under the influence of Gaelic. The definite articles decline for case and gender, like most other parts of speech.

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	ער	אַס	עו	אָ
ACC	ען	אַס	עו	אָ
GEN	אַס		ער	אָרע
DAT	אַם		ער	אָם

The determiner שער is declined in the exact same way. There are two other determiners, יענער, a mediodistal, and שוּדער, a distal. They are declined as follows:

	M	N	F	PL
NOM	יענער	יענס	יענע
ACC	יענען	יענס	יענע
GEN	יענס		יענער	יענער
DAT	יענעם		יענער	יענעם

possessive determiners
Probably influenced by gaelic, possessive determiners in Iùdhais are only used when refering to innalienable possession. They are as follows
מײַ(ן) - meː(n) - my
אונקע(ר) - ˈuŋkʰə(ɾ) - your (DU)
אֹו(ר) - ɔu(ɾ) - our
דײַ(ן) - t̪eː(n) - your
ענקע(ר) - ˈeŋkʰə(ɾ) - your (DU)
יעװע(ר) - ˈjawə(ɾ) - your (PL)
היז - hiz - his
הי(ר) - hi(ɾ) - her
הע(ר) - he(ɾ) - their

Note, the forms in brackets are used before a word starting with a vowel. They are not inflected for case or gender. Their usage as stated is for innalienable possession. Thus, for example, you can say:
מײַן אַהיר - my father
מײַ מוֹח - my brain
מײַן אײרמעם - with my arms

However, in order to express non-permanent possession, the declined postposition אַט is used. Thus for example:
עו בוּך עושע - her book
ער הוןּ אַדֿעם - my dog
אָ לעמער אַשע - their lambs

For a list of situations when possession is considered innalienable:

category	noun	translation
blood relatives	אַהיר/פֿאֹטער	father
	מאָהיר/מוּטער	mother
	ברוּדער	brother
	שװעוסטער	sister
	שײניר	grandfather
	שײנורין	grandmother
	פֿאַטער	paternal uncle
	עום	maternal uncle
	פֿאַדע	paternal aunt
	מוּשע	maternal aunt
	װײַבֿ	wife
	נעפֿע	nephew, grandson
	ניפֿט	niece, granddaughter
	שװײרּ	cousin
	שװיּרּע	cousin
	זונע	son
	טאֹכֿטער	daughter
friends and partners	פֿרײנד	friend
	קרובֿ	relative
	חבֿר'ל	boyfriend
	לוֹבֿענד	lover
bodyparts	הײבֿד	head
	פֿוּס	foot
	אײרם	arm
	שאַנקע	leg
	אײַגע	eye
	אײַרע	ear
	מוֹאדֿ	mouth
	נוֹזע	nose
	פֿינגער	finger
	האַנט	hand
traits	דעה	opinion
	הונגער	hunger
	כּבֿודֿ	honour
	שם	reputation
pets	הוןּ	dog
	קאַץ	cat
	פֿיש	fish
	פֿויגֿל	bird
	הערץ	deer
clothes	קלאָדֿער	clothes
	שוכֿן	shoes
	בריּגיש	trowsers
	שײפּאַן	yarmulke
nobles	גאֹט	God
	קײנינג	King
	שׂררה	Lord
home	הוֹאז	house
	משפּחה	family
	האָם	home
	דיּרה	flat
abstract traits	לאַנד	country
	לשון	language
	יחוס	ancestry
	יעסטעיר	history
	קילדהאָד	childhood
	מוֹתֿ	death
	לײַף	life
	נײמע	name
	נשמה	soul
	מוינד	mind

Furthermore, not using the pronominal determinitive when it comes to friends suggests a certain degree of social distance from a person. So:
מײַ פֿרײנד- my friend (very close)
ער פֿרײנד אַדֿעם - my friend (not so close)

[edit] [top]numerals

The way that numerals and the nouns that they modify work in Iùdhais is slightly more complicated than in English. Firstly, the basic numbers are as follows:

0	נול	10	צעין	20	צװענציגֿ
1	אַןּ	11	עלײף	30	דרײַציגֿ
2	צאֹו	12	צװעלף	40	פֿירציגֿ
3	דרעו	13	דרעוצעין	50	פֿיפֿציגֿ
4	פֿעור	14	פֿוֹרצעין	60	זעכֿציגֿ
5	פֿײַבֿ	15	פֿיפֿצעין	70	זײבֿציגֿ
6	זעקס	16	זעכֿצעין	80	אײכֿציגֿ
7	זײבֿן	17	זײבֿצעין	90	ניגֿציגֿ
8	אײכֿט	18	אײכֿצעין	100	הונּערט
9	ניגֿן	19	ניגֿצעין	1000	טוֹאזענט

Numbers 1-3 are declinable:

one
אַןּ is declined as a regular indefinite adjective when it modifies a noun. It can also be declined weakly, which gives the meaning of "only", but that is unusual.

	M	N	F
NOM	אַנּער	אַנּס	אַנּע
ACC	אַנּען	אַנּס	אַנּע
GEN	אַנּס		אַנּער
DAT	אַנּעם		אַנּער

two
צױ is entirely irregular, with diffferent forms in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter, although the dative and genitive are identical throughout the genders. The declension is as follows:

	M	N	F
NOM	צװעין	צאֹו	צװאָ
ACC	צװעין	צאֹו	צװאָ
GEN	צװײר
DAT	צװאָם

three
The declension of דרײ is slightly more predictable, although still slightly irregular. There is a different form used with the masculine to the feminine, although like the צױ the dative and genitive are identical throughout the genders. The declension is as follows:

	M	N
NOM	דרײַ	דרעו
ACC	דרײַ	דרעו
GEN	דרעור
DAT	דרים

As mentioned previously, nouns following צױ are in the dative, whilst after דרײ-ניגצן, the normal inflected plural of a noun is used. However, numbers twenty and upwards have the noun they modify in the genitive plural case:
אָנּער פֿויגֿל - ˈan̪əɾ ˈfɯiɣl̩ - one bird
צװעין פֿויגֿלע - s̪wɛːn ˈfɯiɣlə - two birds
דרײַ פֿײגֿלס - t̪ɾeː fɤːls̪ - three birds
צװענציגֿ פֿײגֿלע - ˈs̪wen̪s̪ɤɪ ˈfɤːlə - twenty birds

numbers above one hundred
For one hundred, the word הונדערט is used, but a prefixed form -הונד is used for larger numbers:
- הונּצעין - ˈhuːn̪s̪ɛːn - 110
- הונּצװענציגֿ - huːn̪ˠˈs̪wens̪ɤɪ - 120
- צװאָהונּפֿיפֿציגֿ - s̪waːhuːn̪ˠˈfifs̪ɤɪ - 250
- דרעוהונּניגֿציגֿ - t̪ɾiahuːn̪ˠˈn̪ˠɤis̪ɤɪ - 390
- זעכֿהונּזײבֿציגֿ - zɤxuːn̪ˠˈzɛus̪ɤɪ - 670

how to write numbers
The prefixed numbers are also used above 1000. The ordering of numbers is usually [small number] און [large number]. For example, fifty three is דרײַ און פֿיפֿציגֿ - t̪ɾeː un ˈfifs̪ɤɪ. Once above a thousand, the thousand is written first, then the small number and then the tens. This can be used to write any number:
- דרעוטוֹאזענט ניגֿן און פֿיפֿהונּצװענציגֿ - t̪ɾiaˈt̪ʰɔːzənt̪ n̪ˠɤin un fifhuːn̪ˠˈs̪wens̪ɤɪ - 3529
- פֿײַבֿ און פֿוֹרציגֿטוֹאזענט זײבֿן און צװאָהונּניגציג - feːv un fo:ɾs̪ɤɪˈt̪ʰɔːzənt̪ zɛun̩ un s̪waːhuːn̪ˈn̪ˠɤis̪ɤɪ - 45297
- ניגֿן און צװאָהונּזײבֿציגֿטוֹאזענט פֿעור און אײכֿטהונּדרײַציג - n̪ˠɤin un s̪waːhuːn̪ˠzɛus̪ɤɪˈt̪ʰɔːzənt̪ fiaɾ un jaxt̪ʰuːn̪ˠˈt̪ɾe:s̪ɤɪ - 279834

[edit] [top]prepositions

Prepositions in Iùdhais govern either the accusative, dative, or genitive case. The dative is the most commonly used case, but several prepositions may also be used with both the dative and the accusative with the dative governing motion. The prepositions listed below are declinable for person and number:

		me	you	him	it	her	us	you(pl)	them
at	אַץ	אַדֿעם	אַדֿעט	איש		עושע	אַש	אַדֿיבֿ	אַשע
on, in	אַן	אַנּעם	אַנּעט	איןּ		אינּטע	אַנּיש	אַנּיבֿ	אַנּטע
with	מיט	מיטן	מיסט	מעי	מײן	מײסע	מיש	מײבֿ	מיצע
to	צוּ	צאֹם	צוט	שיע	שים	שיּ	צוּס	צאֹבֿ	צוּבֿ
for	פֿאַר	פֿאֹרן	פֿאֹרט	פֿעיר	פֿײרט	פֿירע	פֿירס	פֿירבֿ	פֿאֹרע
by	בײַ	באָם	באָט	ביע		בירע	ביּס	ביּבֿ	באָבֿ
from	אֹ	אועם	אועט	אויגֿע	אוֹיט	אוֹיפֿע	אוש	אויבֿ	אועף
under	פֿראֹם	פֿרוֹאן	פֿרוֹאט	פֿראֹעם		פֿרויר	פֿרויש	פֿרויבֿ	פֿרוֹאבֿ
through	דראֹ	דראֹכֿעם	דראֹכֿעט	דרויכֿע	דוירך	דרויכֿטע	דאֹרש	דרויבֿ	דראֹבֿ

dative prepositions
The dative is commonly used with prepositions, especially locative ones. The prepositions listed below are all usually governed by the dative:
- אַץ - at
- מיט - with
- צוּ - to
- פֿאַר - for
- בײַ - by
- אֹ - from
- עיען - against
- צוּיען - towards
- באַצװיס - among
- װיד - against, opposite

accusative/dative prepositions
There are a few locative prepositions for which the dative imparts a locative meaning (for example, on), whilst the accusative a sense of movement (onto). These are the following:
- אַן - on(to)
- פֿראֹם - under
- אוֹיף - above
- אונּער - under
- אוֹבֿער - over

accusative prepositions
- באַצװיס - between
- עפֿטער - after
- פֿאֹןּ - before
- אֹד - until
- װבוֹאס - without
- דראֹ - through
- אַז - as

genitive prepositions
- כֿאֹם - for, because of
- אוֹס - out of, without
- טאַרסן - across
- יענט - during
- לאַנגס - along

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