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A Guide to Kedshi
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Pretty much everything you need to know.
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 3 Mar 2020, 17:25.

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Menu 1. Introduction 2. Phonology 3. Phonotactics 4. Syllable Structure 5. Grammar 6. Pronouns 7. Demonstratives 8. Interrogatives 9. Relative Pronouns 10. Reflexives and Reciprocals 11. Nouns 12. Adjectives 13. Postpositions 14. Verbs 15. Adverbs 16. Syntax 17. Evidentiality 18. Numerals 19. Conclusion/Some Other Stuff "What could go wrong."
"I mean right now things are going fairly right"
"That description does not communicate it well."

[edit] [top]Introduction

 Kedshi is a language isolate spoken as an official language in Kiriza by around 1,470,000 people or so.
It shows particularly extensive verb morphology, vowel harmony, a construct case, and other interesting features.
This article will go over classical Kedshi, but not necessarily any of the dialects which I should probably flesh out at some point instead of just having Cheti
If you can't read Cyrillic (which is what Kedshi uses), refer to the romanization here.

[edit] [top]Phonology

Vowels
Kedshi has a large vowel inventory, consisting of five front vowels, one central vowel, and three back vowels.
There are no nasal vowels, no vowel length, and no particular vowel phonation.
VowelsFrontCentralBack
Close/i/ и/y/ ӱ/u/ у
Close-mid/o/ о
Mid/ə/ э
Open-mid/ɛ/ е/œ/ ӧ
Near-open/æ/ ä
Open/ɑ/ а

Diphthongs are prohibited in Kedshi, and if two vowels would normally next to each other due to verb conjugation, the first vowel is deleted, making an irregular form.
For example, äртиԙт, to burn something, would not become äртиӧх in the present-nominative-singular, it would instead become äртӧх.

Vowel Harmony
In Kedshi, all words must follow vowel harmony rules.
Kedshi follows simple front-back harmony, with three neutral vowels (that are transparent and do not interfere with vowel harmony, and can be with back or front vowels freely).
The neutral vowels are: /i/, /ɛ/, and /ə/.
Vowel harmony goes as follows: If a word has at least one front vowel (/æ/, /œ/, or /y/) the whole word must have front vowels as well.
If a word only has neutral vowels, or has at least one back vowel, the whole word must have back vowels as well.
Example of front vowel harmony: тӱспӧмäбен (to beat)
Examples of back vowel harmony: щыбиҏ (baby), пуцинпа (ball)


Consonants
Kedshi has 22 consonants, three being allophones, and one only being used in blends.
There are no coarticulations for consonants.
Allophones are in brackets.
ConsonantsBilabialLabio-
dental
AlveolarRetroflexAlveolo-
palatal
PalatalVelar
Nasal/m/ м/n/ н/ɲ/ њ[ŋ] н
Plosive/p/ п/b/ б/t/ т/d/ д[c] к[ɟ] г/k/ к/g/ г
Fricative/f/ ф/v/ в/s/ с/z/ з/ʂ/ ш/ʐ/ ж/ɕ/ щ/ʑ/ җ/x/ х/ɣ/ ғ
Affricate/t͡s/ ц/d͡z/ ҵ/ʈʂ/ ч/ɖʐ/ џ/t͡ɕ/ ћ/d͡ʑ/ ђ
Lateral approximant/l/ л/ʎ/ љ
Trill/r̥/ ҏ/r/ р

Blends/jɑ/ я/jæ/ ԙ/ju/ ю/jy/ ө/jo/ ё/jœ/ ԑ/jɛ/ є/ji/ і/jə/ ы

/ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/, before the consonants /ʂ/, /ʐ/, /ʈʂ/, /ɖʐ/, /k/, and /g/.
/c/ and /ɟ/ are allophones of /k/ and /g/ respectively, before /jɑ/, /jæ/, /ju/, /jy/, /jo/, /jœ/, /jɛ/, /ji/, and /jə/.
<тз> for /t͡s/ and <дс> for /d͡z/ are rare, but aren't replaced by their single-letter counterparts.
/t͡s/ and /d͡z/ as <тс> and <дз> may also appear in words, but are once again not replaced.

[edit] [top]Phonotactics

Two vowels cannot be next to each other, and neither can two of the same consonant.
Illegal: тäӱт, тäттӱ
Legal: тäтӱ
Along with this, л and н cannot be with their palatal counterparts, љ and њ.
If л and н are in front of blends (я/ԙ/ё/ԑ/ю/ө/ы/є/і), they are replaced with their palatal counterparts, and /j/ is removed from the blend, leaving just the vowel.
Illegal: тäнњä, тäнԙ
Legal: тäњä

[edit] [top]Syllable Structure

Kedshi has a general syllable structure of (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C).
Large consonant clusters are permitted, but any bigger than three are uncommon.
As said before, two vowels are prohibited from being next to each other, and a consonant must always separate them (an exception being any conjugations or declensions, see Phonology).

[edit] [top]Grammar

Kedshi has nominative-accusative alignment, boasts seven cases, two numbers, and verbs can take ten tenses (some of which are combinations of tense and mood).
See a basic guide to the cases here.

[edit] [top]Pronouns

Kedshi has three persons and two numbers, including inclusive/exclusive first person plural pronouns, and human/nonhuman distinction for the third person, but a lack of gender distinction.
Each pronoun can be in one of seven cases.
Refer to this table for the personal pronouns.
Possessive pronouns don't exist on their own, and possessives are instead formed with the construct case.
The possessed noun is marked construct, and the pronoun possessing it goes after, and is marked with the case that the possessed noun would take if not in the construct case.
For example:
Ӱђисԑ во - His/her dogs
but
Ӱђисԑ вот - His/her dogs ("dogs" is the direct object)

[edit] [top]Demonstratives

Kedshi distinguishes between distal, medial, and proximal demonstrative proximity.
There are also differences between abstract demonstratives and locative demonstratives.
Demonstratives do not agree to case or number.
Ђи - This
Ҵє - This (abstract)
Ње - That (medial)
Уд - That (distal)
Є - That (abstract)
An interesting feature is that demonstratives do not have plural forms, so:
Буке ђи - This car
and
Букеб ђи - These cars

[edit] [top]Interrogatives

Ну - Who
Ра - What
Із - When
Щям - Where
Ӧст - Why
"How" comes in the form of a prefix that is put on a verb, м(и)-, specifically to question the method of the action:
Эж микäщäмењве? - How did you sleep? (asking the method of sleep, not the quality of sleep)
Раца - Which

[edit] [top]Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns in Kedshi are quite simple, there is a single relative pronoun used for any relative clause, which is "ӧч."
Аљин ӧч споюки вох - The man who has the flowers

[edit] [top]Reflexives and Reciprocals

Both reflexives and reciprocals are expressed with a prefix on the verb, with reflexives using г(э)-, and reciprocals using г(е)-.
Си гэтӱспӧшве - I hit myself
Вԑ гетӱспӧшғ - They hit each other


Nouns can take any of seven cases, can be either singular or plural, lack grammatical gender, and are divided into eight declension classes.
There are no definite or indefinite articles.
Declension Class 1
Class 1 applies to nouns that end in a vowel.
Examples:
Демзи (axe) ----> демзит (accusative singular)
Демзи ----> демзина (dative singular)
Демзи ----> демзиб (nominative plural)

Declension Class 2
Class 2 applies to nouns that end in б, в, г, д, з, к, л, м, н, п, р, с, т, or ф.
Examples:
Щеҏф (bear) ----> щеҏфж
Щеҏф ----> щеҏфж (same ending as accusative singular)
Щеҏф ----> щеҏфљ

Declension Class 3
Class 3 applies to nouns that end in я, ԙ, ё, ԑ, ю, or ө.
Examples:
Дԑ (egg) ----> дԑкӱ
Дԑ ----> дԑн
Дԑ ----> дԑх

Declension Class 4
Class 4 applies to nouns that end in ы, є, or і.
Examples:
Пӧрмӧє (country) ----> пӧрмӧєст
Пӧрмӧє ----> пӧрмӧєщ
Пӧрмӧє ----> пӧрмӧєљ (same as class 2)

Declension Class 5
Class 5 applies to nouns that end in җ, ћ, щ, or ђ.
Examples:
Єнäцђ (gold) ----> єнäцђэы
Єнäцђ ----> єнäцђхэф
Єнäцђ ----> єнäцђиз

Declension Class 6
Class 6 applies to nouns that end in љ or њ.
Examples:
Ђэмењ (bedroom) ----> ђэмењич
Ђэмењ ----> ђэмењпэ
Ђэмењ ----> ђэмењо

Declension Class 7
Class 7 applies to nouns that end in ғ, ҏ, or х.
Examples:
Ког (thing) ----> когид
Ког ----> коге (notice the consonant deletion, коге instead of когге)
Ког ----> коги

Declension Class 8
Class 8 applies to nouns that end in ж, ц, ҵ, ч, ш, or џ.
Examples:
Сäмиц (hole) ----> сäмицӱ
Сäмиц ----> сäмициғ
Сäмиц ----> сäмиц (class 8 nouns are the same in nominative singular and nominative plural)

[edit] [top]Adjectives

Kedshi adjectives agree to case, but not number.
Along with a base form, they can have comparative and superlative forms as well.
They are divided into six declension classes.
Declension Class 1
Class 1 applies to adjectives that end in a vowel.
Examples:
Диди (little) ----> дидис
Диди ----> дидиво (accusative comparative)
Диди ----> дидига (accusative superlative)

Declension Class 2
Class 2 applies to adjectives that end in я, ԙ, ё, ԑ, ю, or ө.
Examples:
Мэњэԑ (hard) ----> мэњэԑв
Мэњэԑ ----> мэњэԑвџ
Мэњэԑ ----> мэњэԑхе

Declension Class 3
Class 3 applies to adjectives that end in ы, є, or і.
Examples:
Пы (short) ----> пыв (same as class 2)
Пы ----> пыве
Пы ----> пыво

Declension Class 4
Class 4 applies to adjectives that end in җ, љ, њ, п, с, х, ц, ҵ, ћ, щ, or ђ.
Examples:
Ђыдабц (sick) ----> ђыдабце
Ђыдабц ----> ђыдабцэн
Ђыдабц ----> ђыдабцэн (same as accusative comparative)

Declension Class 5
Class 5 applies to adjectives that end in б, в, г, ғ, д, ж, з, к, л, м, н, р, т, ч, ш, or џ.
Examples:
Сулст (popular) ----> сулсти
Сулст ----> сулсте
Сулст ----> сулстуг

Declension Class 6
Class 6 applies to adjectives that end in ҏ or ф.
Examples:
Татеҏ (empty) ----> татеҏэ
Татеҏ ----> татеҏэ (same as base accusative)
Татеҏ ----> татеҏо

In noun phrases, the adjective always goes after the noun.
Клäтэб ёћсбе - Soft birds
Лурдемжив якеци - [Using] sharp swords
Adjectives have a smaller set of prefixes than verbs: an adverbializer (see Adverbs), an eminentive (very), and an absolute superlative (too).
The eminentive is formed with the prefix з(е)-.
зуы - very big
The absolute superlative is formed with the prefix п(ё/ԑ)-
пуы - too big ("пуы" is also the word for "small," quite ironic if you ask me)

[edit] [top]Postpositions

Contrary to English, Kedshi mainly uses postpositions rather than prepositions.
Any postposition will cause the noun it motifies to take the dative case, however the postposition itself doesn't change.
Гвюлж њэ - Under the table
Гвюлж ђех - On top of the table


Kedshi verbs are possibly the most complicated thing about the language.
While verbs don't agree to person, unlike some other languages, they do agree to case and number, and have ten tenses, three of which are imperatives.
However, in addition to this, there's also a wide variety of prefixes that are attached in a specific order to give more meaning to the verb.
They are put on a verb in a very specific order, and vowels must be added to prefixes if the letter after it is a consonant, though there are several exceptions with prefixes that are vowels by default.
Вäзивэт - to have added
Вонэфљен - to have baked (notice the 'o' between 'в' and 'н')
The only exception to this is the consonant /j/, and if there is a vowel-default prefix, it takes a consonant.
Вԙтэт - to have run
Verbs are divided into four conjugation classes.
Conjugation Class 1
Class 1 applies to verbs that end in -ем, -ег, or ен.
Examples:
Эмпег (to drink)
Си эмпва (present nominative singular)
Си эмпву (past nominative singular)
Си эмпвди (future nominative singular)

Conjugation Class 2
Class 2 applies to verbs that end in -эљ, -эт, or эс.
Examples:
Ԙтэт (to run)
Си ԙтве
Си ԙтвӱ (same as class 1)
Си ԙтвди (same as class 1)

Conjugation Class 3
Class 3 applies to verbs that end in ят, ԙт, ёт, ԑт, ют, or өт.
Examples:
Эжмият (to send)
Си эжмох
Си эжмо
Си эжмиєн

Conjugation Class 4
Class 4 applies to verbs that end in ыс, єс, or іс.
Examples:
Уфэљуєс (to love - non-romantic or familial)
Си уфэљэ
Си уфэљез
Си уфэљус

Past and Future Remoteness
If you saw the grammar tables, you should notice there are distinctions between simple past and distant past, as well as simple future, near future, and distant future.
Эж юмаљву - You built
Эж юмаљваҵ - You built [a long time ago]
Эж юмаљвди - You will build
Эж юмаљвин - You will build [soon]
Эж юмаљве - You will build [a long time from now] (this shares an ending with the nominative present singular, distinguished from context)

Imperatives
Of the ten tenses, there are three tense-imperative combinations: present-imperative, past-imperative, and future-imperative.
They don't require a subject, but even though a verb still must agree to case and number, adding a subject (especially in written works) can make things more obvious.
Зет сäвых! - Bite it!
Зет сäве! - [You] should have bit it! (pronoun is useful here)
Зет сäвєн! - Bite it [in the future]!

Aspect
Kedshi verbs distinguish between imperfect (unmarked), perfect, and pluperfect.
The imperfect corresponds to the simple past, much like English.
Си эжез - I gave
To form the perfect, you add the perfective prefix в(о/ӧ)- to a present-tense verb.
Си вэжэ - I have given
There are two ways to form the pluperfect, and both are used.
The first way is to simply conjugate a verb into the pluperfect tense.
This is predominantly used in writing and formal occasions, but not necessarily in everyday speech.
Си эжк - I had given
The second way is to use the perfective prefix on a past tense verb.
This is more common in everyday speech, and is also used in casual writing, and on the Internet.
Си вэжез - I had given
The perfective aspect can also be used in the future tenses:
Си вэжс - I will have given
However, there are other aspect distinctions that can be applied to verbs through prefixes, the inceptive, the continuous, the progressive, and the cessative.
The inceptive aspect is formed by using the inceptive prefix ц(о/ӧ)-, and is used like "to begin doing something."
Си кэцԙтве - I begin running
The continuous aspect is formed by using the continuous prefix и(т)-.
It is distinguished from the progressive, in which the progressive is restricted to a specific point in time, while the continuous is used for varying, non-specific time frames.
Си китԙтвӱ - I [used] to run
The progressive aspect is formed by using to progressive prefix т(е)-.
Си кэтԙтве - I am running
The cessative aspect is formed by using the cessative prefix щ(е)-, and is used like "to stop doing something."
Си кэщԙтве - I stop running

Passive
The passive voice, like the imperative, doesn't require a subject, but adding one makes the sentence clearer.
To make a verb passive, you add the passive prefix д(а/ä)-.
When using the passive, the verb still agrees to the subject of the sentence, even if there isn't one that's said.
Пуцинпат дäщеспӧшғ - The ball is kicked [by us/y'all/them]

Zero person
This construction is made by having a verb agree to a singular subject, but not necessarily writing who the subject is.
This is usually used in a general sense, like the English subject "one."
Возэр, усирикж кэрохҏапва - When one has lied, they feel guilt

Moods
Not only do prefixes dictate aspect, but mood as well.
All verbs are in the indicative/declarative mood by default.
These moods are the potential, the conditional, the amative, the necessitative, the suggestive, and the desiderative.
The potential mood is split into two prefixes, which have distinct meanings, but are grouped as potential: җ(и)- (to allow to do something), and з(о/ӧ)- (to be able to do something).
There is a difference between "Си җикабилва?" ("Am I allowed to eat?") and "Си кэзабилва?" ("Am I able to eat?").
Си җикэбилва - I am allowed to eat
Along with "to allow," җ(и)- may also be used with questions to ask for permission, as in, "may I?"
Си кэзобилва - I am able to eat
Like the potential, the conditional mood is split into two prefixes, which don't have as distinct of meanings, but rather are two parts of the conditional.
Both cannot be used at the same time, but one must be used if the other isn't present.
These prefixes are: р(а/ä)- (if...), and к(є)- (would).
The first is used for simple if-then statements, where "would" is implied from the conditional.
Габҵ ірењэ рашиҗо, си зет билва - If the food was not cold, I [would] eat it.
The second is used for conditional sentences that lack the "if," in which the "if" is implied.
Си кэкєбилва, ди габҵ ірењэ - I would eat, but the food [is] cold
The second prefix can also be used without a second clause at all.
Си кэкєбилва, [ди...] - I would eat, [but...]
The amative mood is formed using the amative prefix п(а/ä)-, and means "to like to do something" or "to enjoy doing something"
Си такити пабилва - I like to eat cookies
The necessitative mood is formed using the necessitative prefix с(е)- and means "to have to do something."
Си кэсебилва - I must eat
The suggestive mood is formed using the suggestive prefix м(е)-, and means "to ought to do something."
Си кэмебилва - I should eat
Finally, the desiderative mood is formed with the desiderative prefix т(а/ä)-, and means "to want to do something" or "to wish to do something."
Си кэтабилва - I want to eat

Copula
The copula, иҗят, is normally omitted in the simple present tense, unless the sentence requires a specific mood.
Otherwise, the copula is used in any other tense.
Си шӧнӱԙн - I [am] a person
Си шӧнӱԙн иҗо - I was a person
Си шӧнӱԙн иҗєн - I will be a person
Шӧнӱԙн иҗых! - Be a person!

Transitivity
Kedshi verbs are transitive by default, and must be marked intransitive.
This can be done with the intransitive prefix, к(э)-.
The only verb that never has the intransitive prefix is the copula, which is always transitive in Kedshi.
Си эжу тӱспӧшве - I hit you
Си кэтӱспӧшве - I hit

[edit] [top]Adverbs

Most adverbs can be drawn from adjectives, using the adverbial prefix, ц(о/ӧ)-.
If made an adverb, adjectives go after the verb rather than the noun.
Пӱ кԙтвӱ цотэђ - The fox ran quickly
Some adverbs don't derive from adjectives, however.
Пӱ кԙтвӱ ял - The fox ran again
Пӱ кԙтвӱ ено - The fox only ran

[edit] [top]Syntax

Kedshi has a default SOV word order, and while other word orders, such as SVO and VSO, are used, they are mainly limited to literature (such as poetry).
Kedshi also shows a mixture of head-final and head-initial structures:
-Possessors follow their possessions
-Adverbs and particles follow verbs
-Determiners and adjectives follow their nouns
-Adpositions follow their nouns
-Verbs follow their objects
-Prefixes are used rather than suffixes

Negation
To negate a sentence, you use the negation prefix, ш(а/ä)-, on a verb.
Си эжу шäтӱспӧшве - I do not hit you
If negating a sentence in the present tense where a copula is omitted, put the negation particle шэ at the end of the sentence.
Си ӱђинä шэ - I am not a dog

Forming Questions
For polar questions, you use the interrogative prefix, а/ä(ћ)-, on a verb.
Эж сит авғэљэ? - Do you love me?
If using an interrogative pronoun, you can omit the interrogative prefix.
Interrogative pronouns generally go at the beginning of the sentence, an exception to the SOV word order, but it can be moved between the subject and the verb if desired.
Ну эж вғэљэ? - Who [do] you love?
Polar questions can be answered with "ћä" (yes) or "ы" (no).

Imperative
See Verbs.

Existential Sentences
These are sentences that introduce a new subject.
Existential sentences are formed with the subject in question, and an abstract demonstrative after it.
Злосу ҵє - This is bread
Злосу є - That is bread
Злосу э - There is bread

[edit] [top]Evidentiality

Kedshi evidentials are very much like English ones, as they are modals.
However, there aren't that many of them.
Си аметут кԙтжтӱзвӱ бо - I heard that the boy went.
Си аметут кԙтжтӱзвӱ оы - I think the boy went

[edit] [top]Numerals

Kedshi numerals are extensively compounding (see this article), and agree only to case.
Numeral Agreement
Examples:
Ӧп (three) ----> ӧпӧ
Ӧп ----> ӧпӱд
Ӧп ----> ӧпем (construct case)
Any number can be made ordinal with the ordinal prefix, ҵ(о/ӧ)-.
This is the only prefix that goes to numerals.
Ҵӧп - third

[edit] [top]Conclusion/Some Other Stuff

Kedshi is an interesting language, probably one of the most interesting conlangs I've made thus far.
Sure, it's not totally unique, but it's more than what meets the eye.
Also, Cyrillic is underrated.
That being said, if there's anything I can do to improve this article, let me know in the comments.
I feel like this article is lacking something, even though I've worked on it for a few days, so feedback is welcome.
Kedshi isn't totally naturalistic, I know, but I make languages that make me happy, even if they aren't totally naturalistic.
Also, most of the grammar tables are linked because it'd be time-consuming to put them in the article itself, especially the verb tables.
Thanks for reading, and васав.
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