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1. Proto-Mawo-Caláic Grammar I. ? ?

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Menu 1. 1. Phonology 2. 2. Syntax 3. 3. Morphology

[edit] [top]1. Phonology

1.1 Consonants

Consonants	Bilabial	Labio-dental	Alveolar	Post-Alveolar	Palatal	Labio-velar	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal	m		n		ɲ		ŋ
Plosive	p pʰ b bʰ		t tʷ tʰ d dʰ				k kʷ kʰ g gʷ gʰ	q qʰ	ʔ
Fricative		f	s z	ʃ ʃʷ			x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ		h
Affricate				t͡ʃ t͡ʃʷ
Lateral approximant			l		ʎ
Approximant					j	w
Trill			r
Flap			[ɾ]

1.2 Vowels

There are three vowel lenghts in PRMC: short, normal, and long. The short vowels are always unstressed.

Vowels	Front unrounded	Central	Back unrounded	Back rounded
Close short	ǐ			ǔ
Close normal	i			u
Close long	i: (í)			u: (ú)
Close-mid short				ǒ
Close-mid normal				o
Close-mid long				o: (ó)
Mid normal		ə (ë)
Open-mid short	ɛ̌ (ě)
Open-mid normal	ɛ (e)		ʌ (ä)
Open-mid long	ɛ: (é)
Open short	ǎ
Open normal	a
Open long	a: (á)

1.2.1 Vowel harmony

The vowel harmony system of PRMC is relatively simple. It's a front-back system. Each front vowel has a back pair.

Front	Back
/i/	/u/
/e/	/o/
/a/	/ä/

If the first vowel is a front vowel, the following vowels also must be front vowels. If the first vowel is a back vowel, the following vowels also must be back vowels. When suffixing a word the vowel harmony might change the suffix. So, there are two versions for every suffix.

There is the /ë/ vowel, which is a neutral vowel. Vowel harmony doesn't affect it.

1.3 Syllable structure

Basic syllable structure is (C)V(C). Smaller consonant clusters are allowed, if the first one is not aspirated, or labilaized. For example:

bdh

ptw

pth

ǧtcw

Are completely legal, but:

twd

pht

xwcw

are not.

We must remember these rule, when we affix a word.

1.4 Stress

Stress always falls on the first syllable with a non-short vowel.
For example:

měhle

gwǒlogwó

tcagwa

1.5 Allophony

Affixes will change according to the vowel harmony.

Labialised, and aspirated consonants turn into a plain consonant, if followed by another consonant.

/w/ turns into /u/ before consonants

Voiced consonants turn into unvoiced on the end of the stem word when the affix begins with unvoiced.

Unvoiced consonants turn into voiced on the end of the stem word when the affix begins with voiced.

Nasal consonants will turn into /m/ before bilabial consonants.

Nasal consonants will turn into /n/ before alveolar, and post-alveolar consonants.

Nasal consonants will turn into /ŋ/ before velar consonants.

/r/ pronounced /ɾ/ betveen vowels.

[edit] [top]2. Syntax

2.1 Word order

In PRMC the basic word order is SOV.

[edit] [top]3. Morphology

3.1 Verbs

3.1.1 Affixation order

Verb	Evidential	Aspect	Sub-aspect	Tense	Mood	Number of the subject
0	1	2	3	4	5	6
dhětw	ramě	thán	bhál	ǒt	_	lyú
see	IDREIndirect evidential (evidentiality) speaker has indirect knowledge	PERFPerfect (aspect/tense) have verb-ed	INCEPInceptive (aspect) beginning of an action	PASPast action occurred before moment of speech	INDIndicative mood (mood) a common form of realis	DUDual (number) two

Dhětraměthámbhálětlyí.
/dʰɛ̆tramɛ̆tʰa:mbʰa:lɛ̆tʎi:/
(I think) (both) were about to see (sth).

3.1.2 Evidentiality

There are two classes of evidentiality. Direct evidential is unmarked. It's used when the speaker has direct knowledge about the event, believes as a truth. Indirect evidentiality is expressed with the word ramě/rämǒ (take). It's also possible to express doubt with it.

Twaq ǧatcwithánět.
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee come-PERFPerfect (aspect/tense)
have verb-ed-PASPast
action occurred before moment of speech
He have came.

Twaq ǧatcwiraměthánět.
3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee come-IDREIndirect evidential (evidentiality)
speaker has indirect knowledge-PERFPerfect (aspect/tense)
have verb-ed-PASPast
action occurred before moment of speech
He must have come.

3.1.3 Aspect

There are 5 aspects in PRMC.

Imperfective/Continous (unmarked) - the action is incomplete, the end point doesn't matter

'úb dhětw. - I see

Perfective (wá/wä) - the action is/was/will be completed

'úb twaqké dhětwá. - I saw him.

Progressive (gwí/gwú) - incomplete action, has a definite end point VERB-ing

'úb kéké lyaptexgwí. - I'm peeling it.

Habitual (ghan/ghän) - the action happens regularly

'úb bokthäl athǎghan. - I stay here often.

Perfect (thán/thän) - focusing to the changed state, that the action causedhave VERB-ed

Twaq 'úběhebhǐl ngenggwáké mentethánět. - He have got us food.

There are four subaspects

Inceptive (bhál/bhäl) - the action is about to start

'úb kwǒybhälǒt. - I was about to hunt.

Semelfactive (nyág/nyäg) - the action is repeated within the event.

Twaqěhe twaqké bhǎtcnyágět. - They hit him again and again.

Cessative (kǐcma/kǒcmä) - the action is about to be finished, ended.

Twaqěhe twaqké bhǎtckǐcmaět. - They stopped beating him.

Subutive (eki/oku) - the action happens suddenly.

Twaqěhe twaqké laphekiět. - Suddenly they slapped him.

3.1.4 Tenses

PRMC distinguishes only two tenses: past and non-past. Only past tense is marked with the ǒt/ět affix. Future events can be expressed by using indirect evidential, or time specifying words, like later, tomorrow, ect.

3.1.5 Mood

Moods work in a similar way as tense, aspect, evidential suffixes. There are 6 mood in PRMC:

Indicative (unmarked) - The basic form of a verb.

Gwu' gwu'khäng dhál.
sky blue COPCopula
used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate
Sky is blue.

Imperative (-rá/rä) - Marks command.

Dhu' twaqké bhǎtatcrá!
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient beat-IMPImperative (mood)
command
Beat him!

Interrogative (-khas/khäs) - Marks question.

Dhu' twaqké bhǎtatckhaswáět?
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient beat-INTERRInterrogative mood (mood)
asks questions-PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action-PASTPast tense (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
Did you beat him?

Necessative (-ǧǒh/ǧěh) - must/need to...

Dhu' twaqké bhǎtatcǧěh!
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient beat-NECNecessitative mood (mood)
must, have to
You must/need to beat him!

Abilitative (-kaxǎ/käxä) - can...

Dhu' twaqké bhǎtatckaxǎ.
2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you) 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient beat-ABILAbilitative (mood)
expresses ability
You can beat him.

Causative (-twó/twé) - Make someone to do something

'úb twaqké dhu'kho bhǎtatctwé.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I 3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee 2SSecond person singular (person)
addressee (you)-INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case)
'with' (instrument and/or company) beat-CAUSCausative (valency/mood)
cause an action to occur, force another argument to act
I make you to beat him.

3.1.6 Negation

There is a negative prefix (ǎ/ǔ) in PRMC.
For example:

'úb ké dhětw. - I see it.

'úb ké ǎdhětw. - I don't see it.

Twaq kú hul. - He feels it.

Twaq kú ǔhul. - He doesn't feel it.

3.2 Nouns

3.2.1 Affixation order

Noun	Number	Case suffix(es)
dínsa	ěhe	kho
face	PAUPaucal (number) a few, some	INSTCInstrumental-comitative (case) 'with' (instrument and/or company)

Dínsaěhekhe
/di:nsaɛ̆hɛkʰɛ/
with a few faces

3.2.2 Number

PRMC has four number distinctions; singular (unmarked), dual (lyú/lyí), paucal (more than two, but less than 12) (ěhe/ǒho), and plural (more than 12) (ghǐ/ghǔ).

Inherently dual

lap
a (pair of) hand(s)

lapfámpa
a (half) hand

Inherently plural

cwuhë
sand

cwuhëkäc
(a grain of) sand

Inherently collective

şǎtnalyágwá
kindness

şǎtnalyágwáenakh
(an act of) kindness

3.2.3 Noun cases

PRMC has 10 noun cases that are expressed through affixation. The ten cases are:

Nominative (unmarked)

Accusative (ké/kó) - marks the direct object, patient.

Genitive (on/en) - marks posession, the NOUN's

Dative (bhǔl/bhǐl) - (give) to the NOUN

Locative (thal/thäl) - at, in, on the NOUN

Elative (sǎn/sän) - from/out of the NOUN

Istrumental-comitative (kho/khe) - with the NOUN

Lative (bhál/bhäl) - (going) to the NOUN

Causative-final (dhuc/dhic) - for/because of the NOUN

Perlative (gwól/gwél) - through, along the NOUN

3.2.4 Alienablity

PRMC distingueshes alienable and inalienable nouns. Inalienable nouns can not be used "on their own". We must include the posessor of the noun in the sentence. If we talk about something in genereal, the posessors are the following:

ǧún - man in general, like:
ǧúnon cinín - The man's/one's luck

xwúǧ - child for parents, like:
Xwúǧon mád - The child's mother

alínggwä - something for non living things' components
Alínggwäon tcimgwá - Something's door

There are two different verbs for owning inalienable and alienable nouns. Dhǔr (bear/wear/ect...) is used for posessing alienable nouns. Thán (be part of sth/member/ect...) is used for inalienable nouns. For example:

'úb nyaxwáké dhǔr.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I horse-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient have.ALAlienable (possession)
thing that can be gained or lost
I have a horse.

'úb culukó kwǎs thán.
1SFirst person singular (person)
speaker, signer, etc.; I hair-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient long have.INALInalienable (possesson)
thing that can't be gained or lost
I have long hair.

But both uses the same genitive case suffixes.

'úbon nyaxwáké
my horse

'úbon culu
my hair

Inalienable nouns are usually words for bodyparts, social relationships, ranks, names, feelings, states, components of bigger things, things, that can not be given to others.
There are words, that are both alienable, and inalienable. These words have multiple meanings, like sún (woman/wife). If it's used as woman it's alienable, but if it's used as wife, it's inalienable.

3.3 Pronouns

Personal pronouns

PRMC	English
'úb	I
'úblyú	we (dual)
'úběhe	we (paucal)
'úbghǔ	we (plural)
dhu'	you (singular)
dhu'lyú	you (plural)
dhu'ǒho	you (paucal)
dhu'ghǔ	you (plural)
twaq	he/she/it
twaqlyí	they (dual)
twaqěhe	they (paucal)
twaghǐ	they (plural)

Interrogative and relative pronouns

Interrogative	Relative	English
khas	kíkhas	what
khastwé	kíkhastwé	when
khasanga	kíkhasanga	why
khastwes	kíkhastwes	where
khes	kíkhes	who
khashaba	kíkhashaba	how
khasghǐ	kíkhasghǐ	how many/much

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