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Naduta Passive and Applicative Voices
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A description of how the passive and applicative voices are formed and used
This public article was written by [Deactivated User], and last updated on 22 Aug 2018, 05:09.

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Menu 1. Formation of Passive Voice 2. Use of Passive Voice 3. Applicative Voice 4. Formation of Applicative Voice 5. Use of Applicative Voice Naduta has three voices, active, passive, and a limited applicative voice. Both the passive and applicative are formed with prefixes. However, the passive voice prefix is in fact formed through reduplication of the first syllable of the verb.

[edit] [top]Formation of Passive Voice

There are some specific rules for how this syllable is reduplicated, and these will be outlined below.

For verbs beginning with a consonant, the first CV segment is reduplicated:

包​ biti- "to wrap"
包包​ bibiti- "to be wrapped"

完​ gir- "to complete"
触完​ gigir- "to be completed"

For verbs beginning with a vowel, the first vowel and consonant are both reduplicated:
引​ eru- "to pull"
腕引​ ereru- "to be pulled"

If the first syllable ends in -ey, then this is fully reduplicated:
切​ tey- "to cut"
刃切​ teytey- "to be cut"

Breathy consonants undergo loss of breathiness, but this varies depending on the type of breathy consonant. Breathy plosives lose their breathiness in the reduplicant:

字​ phah- "to write"
字字​ paphah- "to be written"

示​ khi- "to show"
@示​ kikhi- "to be shown"

All other breathy consonants retain breathiness in the reduplicant but lose it in the base stem:
隠​ nhus- "to hide"
腕隠​ nhunus- "to be hidden"

呼​ whey- "to call; to summon"
話呼​ wheywey- "to be called; to be summoned"

As can be seen, reduplication is marked orthographically by replicating all or a portion of the glyph at the beginning of the word.

[edit] [top]Use of Passive Voice

Passive voice is used mostly the same as in English, in order to promote the object to subject position:

s人曜若斧所o舌ls脛羊羊j育X​
Ateduta upah tu pitrey yhismu.
Atedu-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANIMUnknown code.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument
there-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.KNUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
goat-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.ANIMUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) raise-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"Atedu raises goats there."

羊羊斧所o舌ls脛人腕育Xd​
Pirirta upah tu yhiyismu.
goat-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.ANIMUnknown code.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument
there-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.KNUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed
-raise-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"Goats are raised there."

The agent may be marked with s脛口​ tuni:

羊羊斧所o舌ls脛s人曜若js脛口人腕育Xd​
Pirirta upah tu Ateduy tuni yhiyismu.
goat-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.ANIMUnknown code.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument
there-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.KNUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
Atedu-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANIMUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) AGTUnknown code PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed
-raise-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"Goats are raised there by Atedu."

The passive voice is also used for verbs of perception to remove volition/agency:
鳥鳥j聴角取c​
Sarey siswa phegu.
bird-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.ANIMUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) hear-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together
take-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I

"I'm listening to the birds."

鳥鳥斧聴t角取dm​
Sarta sisiswa phermu.
bird-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.ANIMUnknown code.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument
PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed
-hear-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together
take-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"Birds can be heard / I (can) hear/I'm hearing birds."

君l見角取c​
Nah ka phegu.
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
-SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.OBJObject (argument) see-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together
take-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I

"I'm looking at you."

君目見角取n​
Na kuka* phera.
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument
PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed
-see-CONJConjunction
links two arguments or clauses together
take-2Second person (person)
addressee (you)

"You are being seen / You are visible / I can see you."

*the reduplication here is obscured by a morphophonological process particular to this specific conjugation.

Passive voice may also be used as a causative on intransitive verbs:
来​ eh- "to come"
足来​ eheh- "to be brought; to be made to come"

出​ ni- / nhi- "to exit; to go out; to come out"
出出​ nhini- "to be sent out"

多​ ZdP飲之dP了飲X​
Kuydarha irhaurha tah-irmu.
many-ATTAttributive
part of a noun or determiner phrase
-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) drink-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=drink-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"He drank many drinks."

多​ ZdP飲之dP了口飲X​
Kuydarha irhaurha tah-irirmu.
many-ATTAttributive
part of a noun or determiner phrase
-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) drink-PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=PASSPassive voice (valency)
be verb-ed
-drink-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

"He was made to drink many drinks" (Lit. "He was drunk many drinks.")

[edit] [top]Applicative Voice

There exists in Naduta a limited applicative voice which allows for the promotion of oblique arguments to the position of direct object. However, as this applicative voice may only be applied to transitive verbs, it is not a valency-increasing voice.

The applicative construction co-occurs with standard constructions, and is more common in some dialects than in others.

[edit] [top]Formation of Applicative Voice

The applicative voice is formed with the prefix 伊​ in-, which originated as a 3rd person pronoun that fused with the verb and otherwise became obsolete.


食2​
purne
伊食2​
inpurne
to eat


説&​
anumenan
伊説&​
inanumenan
to explain


会e​
khemen
伊会e​
inkhemen
to meet


In some dialects, stems beginning with /x/ will merge with the prefix to form a breathy /n/, while in others, this does not occur.

Thus, 伊遣e​ in + hin "to do" may become either in'hin /in̪xin̪/ or inhin /in̪̥in̪/.


[edit] [top]Use of Applicative Voice

The applicative voice has the effect of decreasing the importance of the object itself, without making the verb intransitive.

育之l了食​ ​ ​ W​
Yhishauh tah-purgu.
food-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=eat-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I ate the food.

了食​ ​ ​ W​
Tah-purgu.
PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=eat-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I ate (something).

了伊食​ ​ ​ W​
Tah-inpurgu.
PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-eat-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I have eaten.

立出聯l説W​
Phurnibeih anumenugu.
situation-UKWUnknown code.OBJObject (argument) explain-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

"I will expain the situation."

説W​
Anumenugu.
explain-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I will explain (something).

伊説W​
Inanumenugu.
APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-explain-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I will explain.

士聯房Ls脛我L了会m​
Dibenuukih tu buh tah-khememu.
workshop-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) LOCLocative (case)
'in, on, at' etc
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
-OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=meet-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

She met me at the workshop.

士聯房L了伊会dc​
Dibenuukih tah-inkhemeri.
workshop-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-meet-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few

We met at the workshop.

In the applicative form, the direct object may not explicitly be expressed; the direct object position is instead occupied by a locative argument, as seen above, or an instrumental:

住居l伊組m​
Meuyuh tah-inharmu.
home-OBJObject (argument) PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
=APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-assemble-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee

He assembled it at home.

寺l伊売​ $必不M​
Disah inmuhipumu-buru.
temple-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-sell-MODModerate (animacy)
not-quite-animate
-must-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
=NEGNegative (polarity)
not

"One must not sell (things) in a temple."

筆l伊字H​
Miyhe inphahra-san?
writing.brush-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-write-2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
=QInterrogative
question

Do you write with a brush?

Tasekanuh indegu.
sesame-oil-KNWKnown gender (gender)
specific known items
.OBJObject (argument) APPLApplicative voice (valency)
promotes an oblique argument
-fry-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity

I fry (it) in sesame oil.

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