Intransitive Verbs: view article

Nolwynn’s system is a subset of active-stative alignment called fluid-S. The marking of the intransitive argument is decided by the speaker. The speaker decides what makes most sense given semantic considerations; case marking for most verbs is not predetermined. However, many verbs have assumed or inherent arguments and so make most sense in one configuration or the other.

There are essentially three different categories that intransitive verbs can belong to:

Unergative: The verb has an agent subject. In Nolwynn, verbs can either be “inherently” unergative or become unergative by the use of an infix.

Unaccusative: The subject is not an agent; that is, it does not actively initiate the action of the verb. In Nolwynn, verbs can either be “inherently” unaccusative or become unaccusative by the use of an infix. Using the unaccusative infix can emphasize a subject’s lack of control or empathy on the part of the listener.

Assumptive: Additionally, speakers can avoid marking intransitive verbs altogether. This “assumptive” zero marking typically demonstrates ambiguity, but sometimes can be used to refer to something halfway between volitionary action and an accident. Assumptive marking can only be used without an explicit direct object. Very few verbs inherently belong to this category.

Examples:

swozaltxa
fall.3S
she falls

The lack of marking [so-called “assumptive” marking] is ambiguous. She may have fallen on purpose or been pushed. Or perhaps she was pushed but fell on purpose.

swozulaltxa
fall<UNAC>.3S
she falls

The unaccusative marking shows that she fell by accident. Someone may have pushed her.

swozyxalxta
fall<UNERG>.3S
she falls

The unergative marking shows that she fell on purpose. Perhaps she is on a trampoline.

swozálaltxa
fall<ANTIC>.3S
she falls [someone made her do it]

The anticausative marking shows that her falling was the result of some external action. She was probably pushed. This example is sometimes viewed as synonymous with the unaccusative example, but it emphasizes that the result of someone’s action was her falling.

swozyúraltxa
fall<AUTO>.3S
she falls [she did it herself]

The autocausative marking shows that she falls because she did it herself. This example and the unergative example may be synonyms, but the autocausative emphasizes that her action caused her to fall.

[edit] [top]Flowchart

Because graphs and images make everything simpler to understand, here is a flowchart:

[edit] [top]Using UNERG and UNAC forms

Remember that in Nolwynn, many verbs belong to the category of either unergative or unaccusative even without a marking. Here are some examples. Notice that they do not have the unergative or unaccusative infixes:

Things that happen to the body [so called "body verbs"] are typically unaccusative. They include verbs such as:
aleeyma - hear
tseeyra - have acne
kxafeey - cough
kuzuréoeey - be sick

Other unaccusative verbs are ones which do not require volition such as:

kyxeey - open
kxeeypa - starve
tšyarami eeyr - grow
onkuleey - sink
uusonezeeey - freeze
swozeeyltxa - fall
kxa’eeytx - die

Unergative verbs are typically those which require volition such as the following:

eeyolaley - sing
kxakatšeeey - scream
zeeyfa - run
geeynaza - speak
eeyrikoa - sleep

There are semantic pressures that help to sort verbs into accusative and ergative categories. More agent-like subjects [acting with volition] lend themselves to unergative constructions, while unaccusative constructions work better with more patient-like subjects.

However, these aren’t absolute. Some verbs that might seem more patient-like are considered unergative in Nolwynn. Then this example:

Imera saluana
Imera melt.3S
Imera melts

means that the person named Imera melts something - not that Imera turns to liquid.

Likewise, despite having an agent-like subject, “eat” is an unaccusative verb in Nolwynn. Therefore,

Imera tswal
Imera eat.3S
Imera eats

means that something eats Imera - not that Imera eats something. [If you wanted to say that Imera eats something without specifying what, then you can use the antipassive voice.]

Notice that neither of these examples have infixes. An unergative verb like saluana “melts” does not need an infix to carry the unergative meaning. Similarly, an unaccusative verb like tswal “eat” does not need an infix to carry the unaccusative meaning.

In Nolwynn, you can use special markings to distinguish between semantically-appropriate unergative and unaccusative meanings. Remember that the markings are not grammatically predetermined; speakers decide when it would make sense to do so. The infix -yx- marks the unergative case while the infix -ul- marks the unaccusative case.

[edit] [top]UNERG and UNAC Into Transitive Verbs

Both unergative and unaccusative verbs are intransitive verbs, meaning they only have one argument. However, you can turn many unergative and unaccusative verbs into transitive verbs. Both of them have special infixes and certain subtleties of meaning.

Unergative is marked on the verb with the infix -yx-
Unaccusative is marked on the verb with the infix -ul-

This example shows an unergative verb being transformed into a transitive verb:

[Gorwol]^S alama → [Gorwol]^S [Kxalina]^O alyxama
[Gorwol]^S hears → [Gorwol]^S hears [Kxalina]^O

When you turn an unergative verb into a transitive verb, you use the unergative infix -yx-. Then the single argument of the intransitive becomes the subject of the new transitive verb.

You cannot use assumptive marking when an unergative verb has a direct object. The following example is ungrammatical:

*Gorwol Kxalina alama
*Gorwol Kxalina hear.3S
"Gorwol hears Kxalina"

The next example is unaccusative. The intransitive subject becomes the transitive object:

[ozšwa]^s syekulula → [Mworeaa]^s [ozšwa]^o syekula
[The plate]^S breaks → [Mworeaa]^S breaks [the plate]^O
When you turn an unaccusative verb into a transitive verb, you use the unaccusative infix -ul-. Then the single argument of the intransitive becomes the object of the new transitive verb.

You cannot use assumptive marking when an unaccusative verb lacks a direct object. The following example is ungrammatical:

*ozšwa syekula
*plate break.3S
"The plate breaks"

[edit] [top]Adverbial meanings

You can use both types to create adverbial meanings: For example:

kwatšesak kyxula, rewa mera twuza kwatš.
door open<UNACCUnaccusative (voice)
voice that signals an accusative subject>.3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee ERGErgative (case)
TRANS subject; agent girl walk.3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee through
A girl walks through an open door.

mera yxariko, myxesazel á twuzawe.
girl sleep<UNERGUnergative (voice)
voice that signals an ergative subject> school to walk<ERGErgative (case)
TRANS subject; agent>
The having-sleep girl walked to school -> the girl who slept walked to school.

[edit] [top]Usage notes

When to use unaccusative or unergative forms:

if you want to underscore the volition [or lack thereof] of the subject.
Some verbs require their use and misusing them could change the meaning:
- body verbs: zwoleey, syxegibxeey, etcetera
- captative verbs: eeytsonya, etcetera
If you want to use the verb to modify a noun. In this case, you could use a participle instead.

Neither form is ever used with the verb zalteey [an auxiliary verb with a wide semantic range].

[edit] [top]Experiencer and stimulus

These forms are useful in describing emotions and involuntary bodily sensations. But this article is long enough. For more information on experiencer and stimulus forms, see this article.

[edit] [top]Other Articles

Here are some other articles that describe other details about Nolwynn's verbs:

participles

intransitive verbs

indirect objects

grammatical moods

captative verbs

ergativity

converbs

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